UC-NRLF 


B   M   S2E  ISO 


GIFT   OF 


With  the  Compliments 

of  the 

Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace 


2  Jackson  Place 

Washington,  D.  C,  U.  S.  A. 

An  acknowledgment  of  the  receipt  of  this  publication  will  be  appreciated 


Publications  of  the 
Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace 

Division  of  Economics  and  History 
John  Bates  Clark,  Director 


JAPANESE  MONOGRAPHS 

EDITED    BY 

BARON  Y:  SAKATANI,  D.C.L. 

Formerly  Minister  of  Finance  of  Japan 

^  f  ?-^/     "^xinscriptlon  System  in  Japan,  by  Gotaro  Ogawa.  »^  5  t*  S      ^^r'i- 

^     /yj  ^-  ^Expenditures  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  by  Gotaro  Ogawa.      H"  ^ /^2  ^  ■  O  ^ 
*?  ''^3  ^.'^ilitary  Industries  of  Japan,  by  Ushisaburo  Kobayashi.    ^,  'fit^S .  /Y)3 

X^/?  i2-"(VVar  and  Armament  Loans  of  Japan,  by  Ushisaburo  Kobayashi. /^Jg^oiT  v  p\  ^ 
<V    ^^•2^".>^ar  and  Armament  Taxes  of  Japan,  by  Ushisaburo  Kobayashi.  ff  T'^fS  7.  yf  ? 
J^    Z/'^- -"Expenditures  of  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  by  Giichi  Ono.  ^  Q,  V"6.2-./?  t 
^  /^  I.  2- War  and  Armament  Expenditures  of  Japan,  by  Giichi  Ono.    \\  c,  y-6  "2  <  ^S 


iMILITARY  INDUSTRIES 
OF  JAPAN 


BY 

USHISABURO  KOBAYASHI,  D.  C.  L. 


NEW  YORK 
OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

AMERICAN  BRANCH:  35  West  32nd  Street 
LONDON,  TORONTO,  MELBOURNE,  AND  BOMBAY 

1922 


r 


COPYRIGHT    1922 

BY    THE 

CARNEGIE    ENDOWMENT    FOR    INTERNATIONAL    PEACE 


r 


THE   RUMFORD    PRESS,    CONCORD,    N.    H. 


NOTE  BY  THE  DIRECTOR 

The  plans  of  the  Division  of  Economics  and  History  of  the 
Carnegie  Endowment  for  International  Peace  have  been 
transformed  by  the  World  War.  Problems  now  calling  for 
study  transcend  in  importance  those  with  which  this  Division 
has  been  dealing  and  material  for  research  and  record  so  far 
transcends  any  that  was  formerly  available  that  it  will  demand 
almost  exclusive  attention  for  some  years  to  come.  A  new 
world  has  evolved  suddenly  out  of  the  world  which  we  knew 
and  the  transformation  extends  to  the  foundations  of  gov- 
ernment and  of  economic  life. 

The  process  of  warfare  itself  is  now  so  unlike  that  of  former 
days  that  many  military  rules  of  the  past  have  gone  into  the 
scrap  basket.  The  late  war  ended  when  its  deadliest  tools 
had  ^barely  been  brought  into  action.  The  peoples  have 
fought  as  they  had  worked,  by  machinery,  mechanical  and 
chemical  engines  of  destruction  have  decided  the  result  and 
will  decide  in  like  manner  the  result  of  all  wars  of  the  future. 
Machine  shops  and  chemical  laboratories  will  so  largely 
determine  what  armies  shall  win  that  fighting  strength  will 
be  as  much  a  matter  of  available  capital  and  of  science  in 
applying  it  as  of  numbers  of  troops  and  strategy  in  directing 
them.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  death  dealing  arts  and  instru- 
ments will  far  surpass  in  destructiveness  those  which  made 
the  late  war  so  deadly,  and  to  a  soldier  of  the  future  the  order 
to  march  into  a  cloud  of  poisonous  gas  and  a  whirlwind  of 
missiles  will  resemble  an  order  to  plunge  into  the  rapids  of 
Niagara.  This  is  one  central  and  obvious  fact  which  the 
war  has  taught  us  and  it  has  many  corollaries,  some  of  which 
have  to  do  with  the  increased  costs  of  war  and  the  importance 
of  the  particular  resources  that  make  a  nation  powerful  for 
offense  and  defense;  but  there  are  less  conspicuous  economic 
facts  which  are  more  fundamental,  since  they  may  determine 
where  and  when,  if  at  all,  wars  shall  hereafter  occur. 

Causes  of  warfare  are  always  partly  economic  and  those 
which  incited  the  recent  one  were  mainly  so.  The  business 
plans  of  a  powerful  state  reached  to  the  ends  of  the  earth 


VI  NOTE   BY  THE  DIRECTOR 

and  so  crossed  and  interlaced  the  claims  of  other  states  that 
some  writers,  then  and  afterwards,  pronounced  the  war  inevi- 
table. If  we  assume  a  settled  purpose  on  the  part  of  such  a 
state  to  encroach  on  the  rights  of  others,  we  may  say  that  it 
doubtless  was  inevitable.  The  victory  of  the  defending 
countries  has  saved  them  from  an  immediate  and  intolerable 
domination,  but  it  can  not  be  taken  as  an  assured  fact  that 
similar  attempts  will  never  again  be  made.  The  economic 
inducement  continues  and  the  means  may  at  some  time  be 
forthcoming. 

Within  the  several  states  war  has  democratized  industry, 
giving  to  labor  an  increase  of  control — a  change  that  if  con- 
tinued will  entail  momentous  consequences;  but  still  greater 
effects  have  been  produced  on  the  relations  of  states  to  each 
other.  The  world  as  a  whole  has  changed  more  than  its 
component  parts  and  the  new  relation  of  the  parts  to  one 
another  is  the  critical  element  in  the  situation.  The  great 
increase  in  the  economic  functions  of  governments  is  one 
cause  of  this  condition.  Within  the  great  international  com- 
munity in  which  the  several  states  are  units  extensive  eco- 
nomic functions  have  gravitated  into  the  hands  of  govern- 
ments and  caused  them  to  face  each  other  as  business  rivals 
and  to  deal  with  each  other  in  a  multitude  of  ways  in  which 
the  merely  self-seeking  policy  of  private  business  is  intoler- 
able. Power  to  invoke  principles  of  justice  and  international 
law  as  interpreted  by  a  competent  court  has  become  an  in- 
dispensable means  of  allaying  strife  and  this  fact  exalts  to 
supreme  importance  the  high  court  of  nations  which  has  just 
been  established.  It  magnifies  also  the  importance  of  the 
economic  facts  and  principles  with  which  the  law  itself  will 
have  to  deal.  It  is  not  merely  individual  men  or  private 
corporations  who  now  meet  each  other  in  the  rough  and 
tumble  of  a  world-wide  mart  but  states  themselves,  each 
representing  its  own  population  and  seeking  to  foster  its 
interests  as  a  zealous  and  faithful  agent.  The  chances  of 
friction  that  are  inherent  in  ordinary  commerce  inhere  today 
in  vast  international  transactions  and  will  increase  in  the 
measure  in  which  the  intercourse  grows.     All  this  means  a 


NOTE    BY   THE   DIRECTOR  Vll 

great  increase  in  incentives  to  warfare,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
in  the  motives  for  preventing  it,  on  the  other.  Private  com- 
merce unites  more  than  it  separates  those  who  participate  in 
it,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen  whether  international  commerce 
will  act  in  the  same  way;  but,  in  view  of  what  modern  war 
means,  the  human  race  will  deserve  to  perish,  and  much  of 
it  will  probably  do  so,  if  the  forces  of  strife  are  allowed  to  get 
the  upper  hand.  Whether  they  will  or  not — whether  the 
recent  economic  changes  will  tend  to  reduce  warfare  or  to 
increase  it — depends  on  the  ability  of  nations  to  create  and 
maintain  the  instrumentalities  that  in  the  new  state  of  the 
world  are  necessary. 

Certain  it  is  that  the  feeling  which  prevails  today,  the 
world  over,  is  not  one  of  security.  The  dread  of  further  war 
is  greater  than  it  was  before  1914.  In  some  areas  war  still 
prevails,  in  others  peace  is  held  by  a  precarious  tenure  and 
in  all  it  can  be  firmly  established  only  by  conscious  and  intel- 
ligent action  by  the  states  themselves.  Mere  exhaustion 
holds  war  dogs  temporarily  in  leash,  but  it  will  take  more 
than  that  to  tame  them  as  they  must  be  tamed  if  peace  is 
to  endure. 

We  here  confront  a  wide  difference  between  the  several 
states  in  comparative  desire  for  peace  and  disposition  to 
maintain  it.  One  portentous  fact  is  the  grim  determination 
of  Russian  communists  to  extend  their  system  by  crude  force 
from  state  to  state.  Bolshevism  is  government  by  the  few  and 
largely  the  bad  masquerading  as  government  for  and  by  the 
people.  In  its  mother  country,  Russia,  the  economic  meas- 
ure by  which  it  began  its  career  was  confiscation  of  private 
wealth — in  itself  an  ultra-democratic  measure.  If  this  had 
brought  in  a  true  communism,  it  would  have  been  a  ruthless 
and  unjust  measure  for  creating  a  peace-loving  state.  A 
just  and  orderly  democratizing  of  industry  in  the  several 
states  would  give  new  strength  to  the  forces  of  peace,  and  it 
would  be  highly  improbable  that  any  state  so  influenced  would 
try  to  extend  its  system  over  foreign  countries  by  military 
invasion.  Democracy,  socialism,  communism  and  bolshe- 
vism  all  appear  in  the  aftermath  of  the  war.    The  first  of 


Vlll  NOTE   BY   THE  DIRECTOR 

them  makes  for  future  peace  and  so  does  even  the  conserva- 
tive element  in  the  second,  while  all  else  in  the  series  means 
certainty  of  civil  strife  and  danger  of  international  war. 

The  fact  that  during  the  war  governments  had  to  take  on 
innumerable  functions  that  were  formerly  in  private  hands 
has  lent  an  impetus  to  socialism  and  to  the  perverted  growths 
that  have  accompanied  it,  and  it  has  created  a  new  inter- 
national system  the  meaning  of  which  is  profoundly  signif- 
icant, though  he  who  runs  can  not  so  easily  read  it.  There 
are  dangerous  features  in  the  system  which  the  war  evoked 
and,  happily  for  mankind,  there  are  available  safeguards 
which  were  evoked  with  them  and  need  to  be  retained  if 
human  effort  can  do  it. 

By  a  compulsion  that  there  was  no  resisting,  the  war  forced 
the  nations  of  the  Entente  into  economic  cooperation  with 
each  other.  Commissions  centering  finally  in  the  Supreme 
Economic  Council  adjusted  in  a  harmonious  way  questions 
that  would  otherwise  have  led  to  rivalry  and  conflicting 
action  in  purchasing  war  materials,  securing  ships,  appor- 
tioning food,  controlling  railroads,  financing  the  war  and 
doing  a  multitude  of  other  things  with  the  one  common  pur- 
pose of  victory.  The  special  compulsion  of  the  struggle  is 
over,  but  it  has  left  an  aftermath  of  issues  grave  enough  to 
make  peace  insecure  unless  something  equivalent  to  the 
Supreme  Economic  Council  survives  in  full  efficiency.  The 
agency  that  did  so  much  to  win  the  war  can  do  so  much  to 
prevent  another  one,  but  to  that  end  it  will  have  to  be  guided 
by  economic  principles  and  it  is  a  saving  fact  that  these  still 
survive.  The  war  has  not  abolished  the  law  of  demand  and 
supply,  though  governments  may  forget  it.  In  the  coming 
era  they  must  build  better  than  they  now  know.  Economic 
knowledge  must  either  go  in  advance  of  action  and  prevent 
disaster  or  follow  action  and  be  learned  from  disaster.  Be- 
yond computation  is  the  importance  of  attaining  the  knowl- 
edge and  using  it  when  evil  impends  and  prevention  is  possible. 

John  Bates  Clark, 
New  York,  Director, 

September  27,  IQ20. 


PREFACE 

The  present  investigation  has  been  accomplished  chiefly 
by  Mr.  Norimoto  Masuda,  Bachelor  of  Law  and  captain. 
For  the  purpose  of  collecting  special  materials,  he  personally 
visited  government  and  public  offices  and  private  companies, 
and,  traveling  to  many  distant  localities,  inspected  factories 
and  cities,  to  secure  the  utmost  accuracy  of  detail  in  the  work. 

The  main  subject  of  this  investigation  is  the  military 
industry,  in  relation  to  which  historical  statistics  and  eco- 
nomical influences  are  discussed.  The  author,  utilizing  his 
experience  gained  during  his  long  military  service  and  his 
complete  knowledge  of  military  affairs  and  political  economy, 
has  succeeded  in  introducing  minutely  the  history  of  armor 
and  the  development  of  the  mechanical  industry  of  Japan  to 
European  and  American  countries,  and  for  this  purpose  almost 
all  the  statistics  of  military  and  general  industries  are  in- 
serted in  his  work. 

It  is  true  that  the  armament  and  military  industry  of  Japan 
has  often  encouraged  an  excessively  rapid  progress  not  parallel 
with  the  development  of  finance  and  economy  and  has  seriously 
aff^ected  the  latter.  At  the  same  time,  however,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  the  military  industry  has  not  only  accom- 
plished the  purpose  of  the  country  in  every  war,  but  has  given 
strong  protection  and  encouragement  to  general  industries 
and  means  of  communication  relating  thereto,  and  by  con- 
stantly instructing  private  industry  has  been  an  everlasting 
fountain  for  diffusing  technical  art,  by  all  of  which  it  has 
brought  Japanese  industries  at  large  to  the  conditions  that  are 
in  existence  at  the  present  time.  Secondly,  as  to  foreign  trade, 
the  rapid  enlargement  of  armament,  accompanied  by  increas- 
ing imports  of  armor  and  ships,  formed  the  most  powerful 
cause  of  the  excess  of  imports  of  the  country  for  a  long  time, 
and  this  led  to  a  great  difficulty  in  keeping  specie  at  home. 
In  recent  times,  however,  owing  to  the  gradual  development 
of  industries,  both  military  and  general,  a  remarkable  decrease 
of  imports  took  place  in  armor  and  ships,  as  well  as  in  all 

ix 


X  PREFACE 

military  commodities,  almost  everything  being  manufactured 
at  home.  Finally,  as  to  social  affairs,  the  conditions  of  labor 
in  the  military  industry,  which  is  more  advanced  than  general 
industry,  raised  the  latter  in  no  small  degree.  Especially  the 
habits  and  sanitary  precautions  of  the  laborer  in  the  former 
are  no  doubt  by  far  better  than  those  of  the  latter,  for  in  the 
military  circles  there  prevail  strict  order,  thorough  carefulness 
and  continuous  encouragement.  After  all,  even  though  the 
military  industry  has  sometimes  had  a  bad  influence  upon 
finance  and  foreign  trade,  yet  it  has  had  a  very  good  effect  upon 
general  industry,  means  of  communication  and  society. 

In  conclusion,  let  me  add  a  word.  Most  of  the  matters 
relating  to  the  military  industry  are  not  open  to  investigation 
like  those  of  general  industry,  but  are  kept  secret  in  many 
cases,  and  even  if  not  so  kept,  neither  statistics  nor  other  ma- 
terial are  well  furnished.  I  have  great  respect  for  the  author's 
work,  because,  in  spite  of  all  those  obstacles,  his  earnest  and 
exhaustive  labor  has  succeeded,  and  I  recommend  it  as  the 
only  one  of  its  kind  in  the  publication  world  of  Japan. 

USHISABURO    KOBAYASHI. 

Tokyo,  Japan, 
March,  igi6. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Books 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce: 

Annual  Reports  of  Foreign  Trade  (Gaikoku  Boeki  Nenpo),  1912. 
Development  of  Mining  in  Japan  {Honpo  Kogyo  no  Siisei),  1913. 

Army  Department: 

History  of  Ordnance  in  Japan  {Nihon  Reiki  Enkaku  Shi),  1880. 
Military  Annual  Statistics  {Rikugim  Tokei  Nenpo),  191 2. 

Cabinet  Statistics  Bureau: 

Statistical  Yearbook  of  the  Japanese  Empire   (Nihon   Teikoku 

Tokei  Nenkan),  1882-19 13. 
Materials  for  Statistics  of  the  Movement  of  Population  (Jinko 
Dotai  oyobi  Seitai  ni  kansuru  Tokei  Zairyo),  19 13. 

General  Staff  of  Japan: 

History  of  the  Sino-Japanese  War  {Nisshin  Senshi),  1904-1907. 
History  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  (Nichiro  Senshi),  1912. 

Navy  Department: 

Naval  Department  Annual  Reports  {Kaigunsho  Nenpo),  1875-1913. 

Naval  General  Staff  Office: 

History  of  the  Naval  Warfare  of  27-28  Meiji  {Meiji  NijUshichi 

Hachi  Nen  Kaisen  shi),  1905. 
History  of  the  Naval  Warfare  of  37-38  Meiji  {Meiji  Sanjushichi 

Hachi  Nen  Kaisen  Shi),  1909. 

Tokyo  Mining  Supervision  Station: 

History  of  Mining  in  Japan  {Nihon  Kogyo  Shi),  191 1. 

Treasury  Department: 

Treasury     Department    Annual     Reports     {Okurasho     Nenpo), 
1875-1912. 

Unyu  Nippo  sha  (Office  of  Transportation  Journal,  Tokyo)  : 
History  of  Transportation  during  the  Meiji  Era  {Meiji  Unyu  Shi), 

1913- 

Manuscripts 

Materials  for  investigation  especially  collected  by  the  government, 
public  offices  and  companies  at  the  request  of  the  commission,  and 
manuscripts  written  by  the  compiler  from  his  inspection  of  the 
following  offices  and  factories: 

xi 


Xll 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Amarube  Town  Office, 
Atsuta  Weapon  Manufactory, 
Edamitsu  Iron  Works, 
Hiroshima   Branch   of   Military 

Clothing  Department, 
Hiroshima   Branch   of   Military 

Provision  Department, 
Japan  Steel  Works, 
Kawasaki  Dockyard, 
Kure  Municipal  Office, 
Kure  Naval  Arsenal, 
Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal, 
Maizuru  Town  Office, 
Military  Clothing  Department, 
Military  Provision  Department, 
Mitsubishi  Dockyard, 
Moji  Weapon  Manufactory, 
Naval  Arsenal, 


Navy  Department, 

Osaka  Arsenal, 

Osaka  Branch  of  Military  Cloth- 
ing Department, 

Osaka  Branch  of  Military  Provi- 
sion Department, 

Osaka  Iron  Works, 

Sasebo  Municipal  Office, 

Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal, 

Senju  Woolen  Cloth  Factory, 

Tokuyama  Briquette  Manufac- 
tory, 

Uji  Powder  Mill, 

Uraga  Dock  Company, 

Tokyo  Arsenal, 

War  Department, 

Yokosuka  Municipal  Office, 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal. 


EXPLANATORY  TABLES 

Value  of  Japanese  Currencies 

Japan  adopted  the  gold  standard  system  in  1871,  but  the  inconvertible  paper 
money  became  principal  currency  a  few  years  later.  In  1886  the  paper  money 
became  convertible  into  silver  and  after  that  date  the  Japanese  currency  system 
was  the  silver  standard  de  facto,  until  on  October  I,  1897,  the  gold  standard  system 
was  legally  adopted.  The  figures  necessary  to  ascertain  the  value  of  Japanese 
currencies  are  given  below: 
(1)1  gold  yen  (according  to  Coinage  Law  of  1871)  contains  1.5  gramme  pure  gold. 

(2)  I  gold  yen  (according  to  Coinage  Law  of  1897)  contains  0.75  gramme  pure  gold. 

(3)  I  silver  yen  contains  24.261  gramme  pure  silver. 

(4)  The  value  of  i  silver  yen  in  the  English  currency  (according  to  the  demand 

rate  of  exchange  on  London  in  the  average  of  the  year)  is  as  follows: 


1874. 

1875- 
1876. 

1877- 
1878. 
1879. 
1880. 
1881. 


s.     d. 

4.02.0 

4.00.8 

3. II. 2 

3II-7 

309-4 

3.08.0 

3.08.9 

308. 4 


s.     d. 
1882 3.08.8 


1883. 
1884. 
1885. 
1886. 
1887. 
1888. 
1889. 


307-9 
307-9 
3.06.0 
3  03.2 
3.02.0 
3.01.0 
3. 01. I 


1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 2.02.0 

1897 2.00.4 


d. 

04-5 
02.6 

10.5 
06.7 
01 .2 
01.3 


(5)  The  value  of  I  yen  of  paper  money  in  the  English  currency  (calculated  on  the 

basis  of  the  above  mentioned  exchange  rate  and  the  quotations  of  the  silver 
price  in  the  Tokyo  Exchange  in  the  average  of  the  year)  is  as  follows: 

s.     d.  s.     d.  s.     d. 

1877 3-IO.I  1880 2.06.4  1883 2.10.7 

1878 3.05.6  1881 2.02.1  1884 304.3 

1879 300.3  1882 2-04.5  1885 303.7 

(6)  I  ryo  (unit  of  value  of  the  old  currency  system)  was  declared  in  the  Coinage 

Law  of  1 87 1  to  be  equal  to  i  yen. 

Chronological  Table 


Meiji  I  St 

1868  A. 

D. 

Meiji  15th 

1882  A. 

2d 

1869   ' 

'  1 6th 

1883   " 

"    3d 

1870   ' 

'  17th 

1884   " 

"   4th 

1871   ' 

•  1 8th 

1885   " 

"   5th 

1872   ' 

'  19th 

1886   " 

"   6th 

1873   ' 

'  20th 

1887   " 

"   7th 

1874   ' 

'   2 1st 

1888   " 

8th 

1875   * 

'    22d 

1889   " 

"   9th 

1876   ' 

23d 

1890   " 

"  loth 

1877   ' 

'  24th 

1891   " 

"  nth 

1878   ' 

'  25th 

1892   " 

"  I2th 

1879   ' 

'  26th 

1893   " 

"  13th 

1880   ' 

'  27th 

1894-  " 

"  14th 

1881   ' 

'  28th 

1895   " 

D. 


xiu 


XIV 


EXPLANATORY  TABLES 


Chronological  Table — (Continued) 


Meijiagth 

1896  A. 

D. 

Meiii  41st 

1908  A.  D 

"     30th 

1897 

(1 

42d 

1909      '• 

"     31st 

1898 

<i 

43d 

1910 

"       32d 

1899 

" 

44th 

191 1      " 

"       33d 

1900 

i< 

45th  \ 

„ 

"     34th 

1901 

Taisho  ist  / 

1912 

"     35th 

1902 

" 

2d 

1913      " 

"     36th 

1903 

(1 

3d 

1914      " 

"     37th 

1904 

<( 

4th 

1915      " 

"     38th 

1905 

<< 

5th 

1916      " 

"     39th 

1906 

<( 

6th 

1917      •• 

"     40th 

1907 

Weights,  Measures  and  Money 

With  English,  American,  French  and  German  Equivalents 

Great  U.  S.  of 

Japan  Britain  America  France  Germany 

^^-I^iSkpu  /  2.44030         2.44029  392727  392727 

=  12.9^ ^Taifeu. ...  1  Miles  Miles  Kiloms.  Kiloms. 

7?i('Marine^  /  I    15152  I    15151  1.85318  I.85318 

Ki  (.JVlarme; j  j^jjj^g  ^jj^^  Kiloms.  Kiloms. 

Sniiarf-7?i  /5-95505        5-95501  15-42347  15-42347 

bquare  Kt <j^  g^  jyjjjgg      gq   jyjjl^g  ^^  ^^^^.^.^g  Quadrat  Km, 

^"""-l^Jse  {2.45064         2.45062  99-17355  99-17355 

-loooe  1  Acres  Acres  Ares  Ar. 

=  3,000  5tt [ 

Tsubo=ioGd  /  3-95369         3-95367  330579  3-30579 

=  100 5Aa^z<..  ..  \  Sq.  Yards      Sq.  Yards  Centiares.  Quadratm. 

Koku- 10  To  (  [47.65389  1. 80391  1. 80391 

=  100 Sho  J  4.96005      J  Gallons  (Liq.)  Hectolitres  Hectolitres 

=  1,000  Go  i  Bushels       1  5.1 1902 

=  10,000  5/fafeM. .  [  [  Bushels  (Dry) 

Koku      (Capacity      offi/ioof  i/io  of  i/io  i/io 

ship) \  one  Ton        one  Ton  de  Tonne  Tonne 

Kinn*,-!  (M^n  Mnmmp    f  8-26733         8.26733  3  75000  375000 

-  ]'^Fun  Ib^-  (A^^^""-)  Ib^-  (A^"^''-)  Kilogs.  KilogS. 

~  ^^^»^        I  10.0471 1      10. 0471 1 

t  1.32277         1.32277  0.60000  0.60000 

lbs.  (Avoir.)  lbs.  (Avoir.)  Kilogs.  Kilogs. 
1.60754         1-60754 
lbs.  (Troy)    lbs.  (Troy) 

^"''-I'^'Rin  ^•°-582         0.4984  2.583  2.0924 

Z\'^% l«d.  Dollar  Francs  Marks 


CONTENTS 


Part  I — Historical  Survey  of  the 
Military  Industries 

CHAPTER  page 

I     Introduction 3 

II     From  the  Restoration  to  the  Sino- Japanese  War       2"] 

III     From  the  Sino- Japanese  War  to  the  Russo-Japa- 
nese War 63 

W     From  the  Russo-Japanese  War  to  the  Present 

Time 85 


Part  II — Economic  Effects  of  the 
Military  Industries 

I     Introduction   161 

II     Effects  on  Industrial  PoHcy 163 

III  Effects  on  Manufacturing  Industry 180 

IV  Effects  on  Primitive  Industry 203 

V     Effects  on  Commerce     212 

VI     Effects  on  Communication   223 

VII     Social  Effects 241 

VIII     Conclusion 259 

Index 263 


XV 


PART  I 

HISTORICAL  SURVEY  OF  THE 
MILITARY  INDUSTRIES 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

The  source  of  the  present  development  of  the  military  in- 
dustry in  Japan  owes  its  origin  mainly  to  her  intercourse  with 
Europe  and  America,  opened  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Tokugawa 
Shogunate,  when  Japan  felt  the  necessity  of  making  military 
implements  and  building  warships  with  all  the  latest  improve- 
ments known  in  civilized  countries;  when  she  set  about  im- 
porting various  kinds  of  machinery,  at  the  same  time  engaged 
-competent  engineers  from  those  countries,  and  began  for  the 
first  time  to  make  war  implements  and  build  warships  on  a 
large  scale  with  up-to-date  machinery. 

As  to  our  native  military  implements,  the  art  and  skill  of 
making  such  implements  had  reached  their  highest  degree  in  a 
way  special  to  the  nation,  as,  for  instance,  in  such  things  as 
our  native  swords,  "  Katana, "  and  suits  of  armor,  of  which  we 
can  safely  boast  as  being  the  finest  specimens  of  craftsman- 
ship in  the  world.  Although  firearms  were  introduced 
into  Japan  about  three  hundred  years  before  the  era  of  Meiji, 
they  were  scarcely  used  in  war  and  not  looked  upon  as  indis- 
pensable military  implements  until  the  days  of  the  revolu- 
tionary war  which  followed  immediately  upon  the  resignation 
-of  the  last  Shogun  of  the  House  of  Tokugawa.  Fighting  in 
the  olden  times  for  the  most  part  consisted  of  hand  to  hand 
combat,  and  bows  and  arrows  were  used  instead  of  firearms. 
The  principal  military  implements  in  those  days  were  suits  of 
armor,  "horo"  (textile  shields),  bows  and  arrows,  swords, 
lances,  "naginata"  (long  handled  falchions),  "konbo"  (long 
sticks  made  of  iron  or  hard  wood),  saddles  and  harness,  ban- 
ners, bells  and  drums,  "umajirushi"  (banners  or  signs,  of 
the  general  or  commander  of  the  force),  shields,  tent  and 
curtains. 

These  military  implements  were  mostly  made  by  hand,  and 

3 


.-  Sir  ;-,. 


4  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

each  of  them  required  special  art  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
artisans  employed  in  the  work,  so  that  it  was  almost  impossible 
for  them  to  be  made  by  machinery;  this  is  the  reason  why  the 
military  implement  industry  in  Japan  was  very  limited  until 
the  recent  era,  and  it  was  the  more  so,  as  there  was  then  no 
kind  of  mechanical  industry  known  in  Japan.  Not  only  was 
there  no  factory  equipped  with  any  machinery ;  there  was  not 
even  a  factory  worth  mentioning  with  any  number  of  hands 
engaged  at  work  at  any  one  place.  In  addition  to  the  above, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  those  days  were  not  like  the 
present  time  in  Japan,  where  the  conscription  system  has  now 
been  enforced  and  certain  standard  uniforms  and  implements 
are  given  to  each  and  every  soldier;  while  with  a  few  exceptions 
the  men  in  the  old  days  had  their  costumes  or  implements  made 
according  to  their  own  fancies  and  ideas  and  according  to  their 
ranks  and  positions.  Therefore  there  was  absolutely  no 
necessity  for  large  factories,  as  there  never  was  any  occasion  for 
having  an  order  to  manufacture  any  one  thing  in  any  quantity 
within  a  given  time. 

In  the  history  of  the  military  industry  in  Japan  before  the 
era  of  Meiji,  the  art  and  skill  of  individual  artisans  are  the 
only  subjects  that  are  worthy  of  notice,  and  from  the  economic 
point  of  view  the  old  system  of  the  industry  does  not  teach  us 
anything  special  for  the  present  essay,  and,  even  if  there  were 
anything,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  treat  it  here,  owing  to  the 
lack  of  available  statistics.  This  is  the  reason  why  we  treat 
principally  the  development  of  the  industry  after  the  Restora- 
tion of  Meiji.  But  even  though  inconspicuous  in  industry, 
we  must,  nevertheless,  refer  to  some  of  our  old  military  im- 
plements which  might  have  some  connection  with  the  present 
manufacture,  so  as  to  facilitate  clear  insight  and  enable  the 
reader  to  grasp  fully  the  present  development  of  the  industry 
in  Japan,  and  for  this  purpose,  we  shall  narrate  briefly  here- 
under the  history  of  the  development  of  some  of  the  principal 
old  military  implements  which  we  consider  to  have  some  rela- 
tion to  the  present  industry. 


INTRODUCTION 


Small  Arms 


There  are  differing  opinions  among  historians  as  to  when 
hand  guns,  known  generally  by  the  ancient  Japanese  under  the 
name  "teppo,"  were  first  imported  into  Japan,  and  the  exact 
time  is  not  known  at  present.  But  according  to  the  opinion 
most  popularly  believed  among  the  natives,  the  first  instance 
of  the  importation  of  firearms  into  this  country  was  on  the  25th 
day  of  August  in  the  8th  year  (some  say  the  12th  year)  of  the 
Temmon  Era  (1539  or  1543).  More  than  one  hundred 
Dutch  merchants  (also  said  to  be  Portuguese)  led  by  Francisco 
and  Christo  vao  da  Mota  arrived  at  Tanegashima,  a  small 
island  belonging  to  the  province  of  Osumi,  Kyushu,  their  ship 
being  blown  off  its  due  course  by  a  storm,  and  landed  at  Kokura, 
a  small  harbor  in  the  village  of  Nishimura  on  that  island,  where, 
with  the  aid  of  a  Chinese  scholar  named  Goho,  who  came 
on  the  same  ship  with  them,  they  asked  the  governor  of  the 
island  Tanegashima,  Hyobunosuke  Tokitaka,  to  allow  them  to 
enter  into  commercial  intercourse  with  the  natives,  and  at  the 
request  of  the  governor  sold  him  a  number  of  hand  guns  they 
had  brought  with  them.  On  the  same  occasion,  it  is  said,  the 
Governor  of  Tanegashima  entertained  those  foreign  guests  very 
cordially,  and  asked  them  to  teach  him  the  mode  of  shooting 
and  handling  a  gun  and  also  the  method  of  making  gunpowder. 
The  hand  gun  imported  then  was  a  muzzle-loader,  measuring 
3  feet  and  7.2  inches  in  its  whole  length  and  0.72  inch  in 
caliber,  and  it  was  perhaps  one  of  those  match-locks  wWch 
were  produced  in  Spain  during  the  fourteenth  century.  It 
was  not  long  before  Tokitaka  and  his  men  became  quite  skil- 
ful in  shooting  and  moreover  they  tried,  as  is  natural,  to  make 
firearms  with  their  own  hands,  but  failed  in  making  perfect 
ones  because  they  could  not  understand  some  points  of  the 
weapon.  In  the  next  year  Dutch  merchants  came  again  to  the 
island  accompanied  by  a  smith  skilled  in  the  work  of  gun 
making.  After  some  time  Tokitaka  got  several  of  his  men 
thoroughly  instructed  in  the  work  of  a  gunsmith,  and  at  last 
he  succeeded  in  making  hundreds  of  perfect  hand  guns  solely 
by  the  work  of  the  natives,  hence  "  Tanegashima- tsutsu " 


6  MILITARY   industries:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

("tsutsu"  meaning  a  barrel  or  "teppo")  became  another 
name  common  in  this  country  for  small  arms.  The  example 
given  by  Tanegashima  was  followed  by  Ashikaga,  the  Shogun 
of  the  time,  and  many  feudal  lords,  so  that  the  work  of  gun- 
smiths soon  became  common  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
Among  others  a  certain  citizen  of  Sakai,  a  harbor  and  town  in 
the  province  of  Izumi,  who  went  early  to  Tanegashima  and 
studied  gun  making,  began  a  prosperous  business  in  his  native 
town,  and  his  abundant  products  were  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  whole  country.  Guns  made  in  those  times 
were  not  uniform  in  size  and  shape,  some  improvements 
having  been  made  after  they  were  first  imported.  The  barrel 
was  made  of  steel  and  fixed  in  a  stock  made  of  oak;  a  lock 
made  of  brass  was  so  devised  that  on  pulling  the  trigger  the 
cock  dropped  and  struck  against  the  lock  and  produced  the 
discharge. 

Soon  after  the  first  importation  of  firearms,  Japan  reached 
the  epoch  called  by  historians  "Sengoku  Jidai"  (civil  war 
period),  when  incessant  hostilities  between  feudal  lords  caused 
the  manufacture  of  weapons  of  all  kinds  known  at  that  time 
to  be  very  active,  and  gun  making  was  even  attempted  in 
every  part  of  the  country.  Notwithstanding  the  needs  of 
the  time,  the  use  of  firearms  was  comparatively  limited,  for 
it  was  considered  by  all  people  that  to  shoot  an  enemy  with 
a  gun  from  a  distance  was  a  cowardly  deed,  because  it  was  con- 
trary to  the  doctrine  of  "Bushido"  that  the  right  and  most 
honorable  way  to  fight  consisted  in  meeting  the  enemy  face 
to  face  and  with  cold  steel. 

At  last  in  the  time  of  Toyotomi,  which  immediately  fol- 
lowed the  "Sengoku  Jidai,"  regiments  armed  with  "teppo" 
were  formed  besides  those  armed  with  bows  and  arrows;  and 
thus  the  use  of  hand  guns  was  gradually  extended.  After 
that,  and  especially  after  the  Tokugawa  Shogunate  was 
established,  skill  in  the  practice  of  shooting  grew  more  and 
more  advanced ;  yet  as  to  the  industry  of  firearms  no  sign  of 
progress  was  visible  during  the  course  of  about  two  hundred 
years,  until  the  era  of  Kokwa  (i 844-1847).     The  reason  for 


INTRODUCTION  7 

this  may  be  explained  as  follows:  Although  Japan  entered  in 
the  14th  year  of  the  Keicho  Era  (1609)  into  a  treaty  of  com- 
merce with  Holland,  her  government  remained  still  attached 
to  the  policy  of  closing  her  country  and  people  against  all 
foreigners,  and  allowed  no  person  without  authority  or  a 
license  for  the  purpose  to  have  intercourse  with  any  of  them, 
even  though  he  was  a  Dutchman,  or  to  study  any  work  or 
product  of  Occidental  civilization.  The  interdict  was  carried 
out  strictly  when  the  matter  concerned  military  affairs,  for  ex- 
ample, military  instruments  or  military  science.  In  addition 
to  the  policy  adopted  by  the  government,  tjie  undisturbed 
peace  which  continued  through  those  two  hundred  years  may 
also  account  for  the  dullness  in  the  industry  of  gun  making. 

In  and  after  the  era  of  Tempo  (i  830-1 843),  foreign  ships 
frequently  visited  this  country  and  gradually  aroused  the 
nation,  who  at  last  grew  anxious  to  understand  foreigners 
better  and  began  to  study  both  their  persons  and  their  pro- 
ductions. Many  of  the  natives,  especially  men  of  the  learned 
class,  went  to  Nagasaki,  which  was  the  only  port  then  open  to 
foreigners,  and  endeavored  secretly  to  learn  the  sciences  and 
arts  of  Europe  from  Dutchmen,  who  were  then  the  only 
foreigners  permitted  to  land  in  this  country.  Among  other 
things,  even  gunnery  was  studied  by  some  of  those  private 
students,  who  in  turn  taught  the  art  to  their  countrymen. 
At  last  the  government  of  the  Shogun,  and  all  clans,  urged  by 
the  demand  of  the  time,  determined  to  have  soldiers  trained 
in  gunnery,  and  instructed  their  people  to  follow  their  own 
example.  Thus  all  the  people  of  the  country  began  to  pay 
more  attention  to  the  importation  of  weapons  as  well  as  to  the 
domestic  manufacture  of  the  same. 

The  first  importation  of  firing  mechanism  guns  took  place 
just  at  that  time  and  placed  the  gun  making  of  this  country  in 
a  position  ready  for  an  advance.  Above  all,  the  visit  of  Com- 
modore Perry  of  the  United  States  of  America  in  the  6th 
year  of  Kaei  (1853)  caused  violent  agitation,  and  all  persons 
who  recognized  the  crisis  of  their  country  insisted  upon  the 
pressing   necessity   of   national   defense.     The  government, 


8  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

by  the  aid  of  Takashima  Shirodayu,  a  renowned  master  of 
gunnery,  and  some  others,  purchased  abroad  warships  and 
weapons  through  the  medium  of  Dutch  merchants.  At  the 
same  time  the  making  of  firearms  was  encouraged  everywhere 
in  the  country,  and  many  contrivances  were  attempted  for 
their  improvement.  Even  a  quick-firing  gun  was  invented 
by  a  feudal  lord,Sanada  Shinano-no-kami,  who  presented  some 
specimens  of  the  same  to  the  Shogun  of  the  time.  At  last, 
the  government,  being  eager  to  encourage  domestic  industry, 
announced  in  the  6th  year  of  Ansei  (1859)  that  liberty  was 
given  to  private  individuals  (who  had  hitherto  been  forbidden) 
to  transfer  firearms  by  purchase  and  sale. 

Notwithstanding  these  remarkable  effects  on  both  the  gov- 
ernment and  the  people,  firearms  of  domestic  manufacture 
were  by  no  means  perfect  and  their  efficiency  and  accuracy 
were  not  to  be  compared  with  those  of  the  guns  imported  from 
Europe.  Therefore,  the  Shogun  and  other  feudal  lords  pur- 
chased most  of  their  arms  abroad  through  the  medium  of 
Dutchmen;  and  a  considerable  number  of  weapons  was  thus 
imported  yearly,  the  largest  of  imports  being  those  recorded 
in  the  era  of  Bunkyu  (i 861-1863).  All  the  small  arms  im- 
ported in  these  years  were  such  as  had  been  made  in  Holland 
after  the  type  of  the  years  1 830-1 845  and  called  in  this  coun- 
try the  Gewehr  musket.  A  musket  of  this  sort  consists  of  a 
smooth  bored  barrel  of  forged  iron  and  is  provided  with  a 
sight  and  a  double  springed  lock.  A  stud  for  a  bayonet, 
though  it  was  annexed  to  the  margin  of  the  muzzle  of  the 
musket,  was  utterly  useless  in  those  days,  when  a  Japanese 
warrior  carried  always  a  "Katana"  (sword)  about  his  waist 
but  never  a  bayonet.  Besides  the  Gewehr  rifle,  some  kinds 
of  carbines  and  pistols  were  also  imported  during  the  same 
period.  Soon  after  the  first  importation  of  the  Gewehr 
musket,  many  of  the  feudal  lords  ordered  their  smiths  to  make 
imitations,  and  finally  succeeded  in  their  efforts;  so  that  it  was 
not  long  before  the  army  of  every  feudal  lord  in  the  country 
was  amply  furnished  with  muskets  of  the  same  type.  But 
soon  after,  the  government  of  the  Shogun  in  the  Keio  Era 


INTRODUCTION  9 

( 1 865-1 867)  engaged  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  of 
the  French  Army  as  teachers  of  a  military  school  to  train  the 
native  soldiers,  and  according  to  the  opinion  of  those  French 
officers  determined  to  adopt  the  rifles  of  the  Minie  type.  All 
the  feudal  lords  who  had  hitherto  used  the  Gewehr  and  other 
muskets  indiscriminately  recognized  the  simplicity  of  hand- 
ling and  the  superior  effect  of  discharge  in  the  new  rifles,  and 
many  of  them  displaced  the  former  guns  with  the  latter. 
About  this  time  the  government  ordered  Egawa  Tarozaemon, 
who  was  quite  a  master  of  both  gun  making  and  gunnery  of  the 
time,  to  teach  the  men  sent  from  all  clans  for  the  purpose. 
These  facts  were  the  cause  of  the  notable  advancement  which 
we  find  before  the  dawn  of  the  Meiji  Era  in  military  tactics  as 
well  as  in  the  industry  of  gun  making  in  this  country.  The 
progress  was  so  remarkable  that  the  match-lock  muskets,  the 
only  firearms  known  by  the  natives  until  thirty  years  ago, 
became  now  very  rare  objects,  difficult  to  find  anywhere  in  this 
country,  and  the  clans  were  not  slow  in  trying  to  get  ahead  of 
one  another  in  using  the  rifle  with  firing  mechanism. 

Machine  Guns 

The  machine  gun  produced  first  in  this  country  was  in- 
vented by  a  certain  Inatomi  Ichimu  in  the  era  of  Kwan-ei 
( 1 824-1 843)  and  was  one  capable  of  discharging  twenty  shots 
in  succession.  About  the  same  time  another  one,  consisting 
of  twenty  barrels,  each  with  a  match-lock,  was  invented  by 
Inouye  Geki,  and  some  specimens  of  the  same  which  had  been 
made  under  the  guidance  of  a  renowned  mechanic  named 
Kunitomo  Jindayu  were  presented  to  Tokugawa  lyemitsu,  the 
Shogun  of  the  time.  All  those  machine  guns  were,  of  course, 
very  immature  in  both  design  and  work  compared  with  those 
of  the  present  day.  They  were  so  heavy  and  bulky  that  they 
were  rather  fit  for  a  stationary  gun  than  to  be  carried  by  a 
man.  After  this,  machine  guns  of  the  type  of  either  a  native 
invention  or  a  foreign  one  were  produced  here  and  there  in  the 
country,  but  they  are  hardly  worth  mentioning  in  the  line  of 
industry. 


10  MILITARY   industries:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

Guns 

Smooth-Bored  Guns 

The  importation  of  guns  took  place  about  the  same  time  as 
that  of  small  arms,  and  the  first  instance  of  their  practical  use 
in  war  occurred  when  they  were  used  in  the  armies  of  the  lords 
Oda  and  Otomo  during  the  period  from  the  era  of  Temmon 
to  that  of  Tensho  (1532-1591).  But,  owing  to  the  topographi- 
cal features  of  the  country  and  the  imperfect  state  of  the  roads 
and  means  of  transportation  in  those  times,  instances  of  the 
practical  use  of  guns  in  the  field  were  very  rare,  the  use  having 
been  limited  to  bombarding  a  castle  or  a  sea  fight.  The  guns 
first  imported  into  Japan  were  those  made  in  France,  and 
hence  guns  of  the  same  type  were  called  "Fransu."  Pre- 
viously, guns  of  this  sort  had  been  imported  into  China  under 
the  reign  of  the  Ming  dynasty  from  Spain  and  Portugal;  and 
they  were  imported  into  Japan  either  directly  from  these 
European  countries  or  indirectly  through  the  medium  of  the 
Chinese.  The  first  gun  made  by  the  hand  of  a  domestic 
artisan  was  that  forged  after  the  "Fransu"  type  by  the  order 
of  Toyotomi  Hideyoshi  in  the  ist  year  of  the  era  of  Bunroku 
(1592).  In  the  i6th  year  of  Keicho  (161 1)  Shibatsuji  Riza- 
yemon  Michinari  of  Sakai,  a  famous  port  town  in  Izumi 
Province,  produced  a  muzzle-loading  gun  which  was  made  of 
white  cast  iron  and  whose  caliber  measured  i  foot  and  10  feet 
in  the  length  of  gun  barrel  and  was  capable  of  emitting  a 
charge  weighing  12^  pounds.  A  so-called  "  Wariu-dsutsu  " 
(the  term  meaning  a  gun  of  Japanese  type)  in  those  times  had 
a  screw  to  close  the  breech,  and  was  provided  with  a  notch 
of  the  back  sight  placed  in  front  of,  and  at  the  distance  of 
four  times  of  the  caliber  from  the  touch-hole,  and  foresight 
fixed  at  the  upper  edge  of  the  muzzle,  but  mostly  with  no 
trunnion. 

In  the  early  times  of  the  Tokugawa  Shogunate,  the  use  of 
guns  was  still  very  limited,  more  limited  than  that  of  small 
arms;  so  that  there  was  no  trace  of  advancement  in  the  indus- 
try of  gun  making.     But  in  the  6th  year  of  Keicho  (1601) 


INTRODUCTION  II 

Tokugawa  lyeyasu  instructed  his  men  to  practice  gunnery, 
and  then  Inouye  Geki  and  Nakamura  Wakasanokami  jointly 
devised  a  rest  for  a  gun  turnable  in  every  direction  and  named 
it  "Sempudai."  It  produced  a  remarkable  effect  afterward  in 
the  war  called  "Osaka-jin,"  when  it  was  employed  to  destroy 
the  castle  of  Osaka. 

In  the  era  of  Kwan-ei  (i 624-1 643)  some  Dutchmen  came 
to  this  country  and  held  under  their  guidance  an  examination 
in  gun  firing  on  the  field  of  Meguro.  The  gun  was  a  mortar 
of  ancient  type,  4  feet  and  0.4  inch  in  length  and  i  foot 
and  3  feet  1 1  inches  in  caliber;  its  bullet  weighed  7i6|  pounds 
in  lead  or  541  f  pounds  in  copper.  The  examination  was  for 
the  purpose  of  acquiring  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  both 
gunnery  and  gun  making,  and  preparing  for  the  manufacture 
of  guns  in  the  future. 

In  the  3d  year  of  Shoho  (1643- 1647)  Inouye  Geki  presented 
a  treatise  on  firearms,  in  which  he  urged  vehemently  the  press- 
ing necessity  of  improving  weapons.  In  the  3d  year  of  Kei- 
an  (1650)  Hojo  Masafusa  investigated  the  siege  tactics  of  the 
Dutch  and  the  art  of  shooting  and  handling  guns  and  small 
arms;  and,  presenting  an  essay  on  the  result  of  his  investiga- 
tion, together  with  plans  and  specimens  of  machines  and  in- 
struments, he  persuaded  the  Shogun,  his  master,  to  start  the 
work  of  manufacturing  firearms.  Thus  the  art  of  gun  making 
began  to  be  treated'  with  due  attention. 

Although  in  the  time  above  stated  there  were  many  persons 
who  cared  for  gun  making,  it  was  not  long  before  they  began 
to  lay  aside  their  guns  and  to  leave  them  to  rust,  when  people 
were  thoroughly  accustomed  to  peace  and  cared  to  employ 
only  such  weapons  as  bows  and  arrows,  hand  guns,  swords  or 
spears,  etc.  But  in  the  era  of  Kyoho  (171 6-1 735)  the  Shogun 
Yoshimune,  who  was  awake  to  the  urgency  of  the  times, 
ordered  Aoki  Kon-yo,  Ogiu  Sorai  and  some  others  to  study 
Dutch  books  and  to  make  a  plan  for  the  improvement  of 
weapons,  and  engaged  at  the  same  time  a  Dutchman  named 
Kaiser,  who  by  the  order  of  the  Shogun  made  several  guns 
which   were   called    "Koppi-ho,"    "Ten-ho"    (mortar)    and 


12  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

"Kanon-ho"  respectively.  After  the  death  of  that  Shogun, 
his  scheme  for  improving  weapons  was  abandoned ;  and  most 
of  the  men  who  had  some  particular  knowledge  of  gunnery, 
even  those  who  were  in  permanent  homage  to  the  Shogun  as 
a  teacher  of  gunnery,  endeavored  to  keep  their  knowledge 
from  the  public,  though  such  knowledge  was  nothing  more 
than  the  ancient  idea  neither  improved  nor  increased  since  it 
was  first  imported  by  Dutchmen,  and  they  never  intended 
to  learn  or  discover  any  new  thing.  This  state  of  things 
lasted  for  some  time  after  the  death  of  Yoshimune,  and  both 
gunnery  and  gun  making  diminished  rather  than  advanced 
during  the  same  period. 

Since  from  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  warships  of 
Great  Britain,  France  and  Russia  came  frequently  to  visit  this 
country,  people  who  felt  uneasy  as  to  the  fate  of  their  coun- 
try began  to  pay  much  attention  to  the  means  of  defense  and 
many  of  them  sought  eagerly  to  learn  the  military  affairs  of 
Western  nations  from  Dutchmen  who  were  then  dwelling  in 
this  country,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  government  of 
the  Shogun  would  hardly  grant  them  license  to  have  inter- 
course with  foreigners.  In  the  era  of  Temmei  (i  781-1788)  a 
retainer  of  the  Sendai  clan,  named  Hayashi  Shihei,  published 
a  book  entitled  Kaikoku-Heidan,^  in  which  he  argued  strongly 
the  urgency  of  the  defense  of  the  country  and  proposed  a 
design  for  the  purpose,  extending  the  treatise  to  the  topic  of 
firearms  manufacture  and  also  to  that  of  tactics.  Moreover, 
in  the  same  work  the  author  exposed  the  fault  of  the  policy 
adopted  theretofore  by  the  government  in  seeking  a  false  peace 
for  a  time  only,  and  advised  the  latter  to  take  steps  to  correct 
the  error.  During  the  era  of  Anei  (i 772-1 780)  the  author, 
being  enlightened  previous  to  the  publication  of  his  elaborate 
work  upon  the  necessity  of  guns  for  the  national  defense,  con- 
trived to  make  a  wooden  gun,  and  he  was  compelled  to  use  in 
the  firing  practice  the  old  gunpowder  produced  in  the  era  of 
Genna  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  before,  for  it  was  the 
only  kind  he  could  find  in  the  country.  This  fact,  evidencing 
the  utter  neglect  during  this  period  of  the  most  effectual 

*  A  Treatise  on  the  Military  Affairs  of  the  Insular  Country. 


INTRODtrCTION  I3 

weapon  for  the  national  defense,  proves  most  clearly  the  wis- 
dom of  the  author's  opinion.  Soon  after  the  vehement  argu- 
ment of  Hayashi  Shihei  was  made  public,  difficulties  frequently 
occurred  in  the  international  relations  with  foreign  countries, 
as  had  been  prophesied  by  him.  In  the  4th  year  of  Bunkwa 
(1807)  a  Russian  war  vessel  came  to  Etorop  Island,  Yezo,  and 
landed  her  men  forcibly  on  the  island,  and  in  the  next  year  a 
British  ship  threatened  the  citizens  of  Nagasaki.  The  peace- 
ful nation  began  to  feel  gradually  the  peril  of  foreign  warships. 
Every  clan  was  ordered  to  prepare  for  the  defense  of  the  coun- 
try, and  the  arms  making  industry  was  stimulated  to  make  a 
considerable  advance.  Almost  all  the  guns  made  during  this 
era  (1804-18 17)  were  of  small  (i  830-1 843)  muzzle  and  forged 
with  bronze.  In  the  era  of  Tempo,  Takashima  Shirodayu, 
who  made  himself  quite  a  master  of  gunnery,  studied  also  the 
art  of  gun  making,  examining  several  different  guns  which  he 
purchased  from  a  Dutchman.  From  this  time  the  art  made 
constant  progress,  and  the  rate  of  progress  was  much  celebrated 
after  the  era  of  Kaei  (i  848-1 853),  when  the  government 
bought  many  guns  of  Dutch  form  and  encouraged  the  manu- 
facture of  firearms ;  and  then  all  "Han"  (or  clans)  commenced 
the  work  of  gun  making,  using  as  a  model  those  Dutch  guns 
of  the  government,  especially  the  two  "Han,"  Hizen  and 
Satsuma,  embracing  more  advanced  ideas  than  the  rest, 
effected  a  most  conspicuous  development  of  the  work.  The 
number  of  guns  made  in  the  factories  of  both  the  government 
and  the  "Han"  in  about  a  year's  time,  from  the  first  day  of 
June  of  the  6th  year  of  Kaei  to  the  end  of  the  following  June, 
was  1,374.  The  progress  of  domestic  gun  making  was  so 
remarkable  that  even  in  the  years  of  Bunkyu  and  Gwanji 
( 1 861-1864)  a  considerable  number  of  large  guns  made  in  the 
country  was  to  be  found  mixed  with  foreign  ones  in  their 
batteries.  The  large  guns  of  those  days  included  such  as  the 
following:  a  cannon,  the  shell  of  which  weighed  12  pounds, 
18  pounds,  or  24  pounds;  a  short  cannon,  the  shell  of  which 
weighed  30  pounds,  80  pounds,  or  1 50  pounds ;  and  a  mortar 
which  measured  2  feet  and  10.74  inches,  or  i  foot  and  11.96 
inches. 


14  MILITARY   industries:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

Rifled  Guns 

(a)  Muzzle-Loading  Guns. — The  first  time  a  rifled  gun  came 
into  use  in  Japan  was  the  ist  year  of  the  era  of  Gwanji  (1864). 
Prompted  by  the  necessity  of  national  defense,  the  Shogunate 
Government  issued  orders  for  the  manufacture  of  40  4- 
pound  mountain  guns  and  the  purchase  of  a  number  of  12- 
pound  hexagonal  guns  of  wrought  iron ;  and  later,  on  discover- 
ing the  powerfulness  of  rifled  guns,  it  urged  the  manufacture 
of  16  4^-pound  French  rifled  guns  (field  guns).  Among  the 
guns  made  in  those  times,  there  was  a  150-pound  bronze 
rifled  cannon  as  large  as  15  feet  0.5  inch  long  in  gun  barrel 
and  10.7  inches  in  caliber,  cast  by  the  Mito  clan.  The  gun 
had  eight  riflings  and  was  to  be  loaded  with  studded  shells. 
In  that  way  the  first  rifled  guns  were  produced  in  this  country. 

In  the  1st  year  of  Keio  (1865),  work  was  started  on  some 
30-pound  French  short  cannon  and  12-pound  cannon;  also 
the  work  of  economically  supplying  improved  guns  by  remodel- 
ling and  rifling  the  old  24-pound  guns  was  begun.  Next  year 
(1866),  some  ten  or  more  French  officers,  commissioned  and 
non-commissioned,  were  engaged,  and  under  their  guidance 
troops  were  newly  organized  and  the  system  of  military  educa- 
tion was  reformed ;  also  a  reform  was  made  in  the  arms  manu- 
facturing, and  the  French  methods  were  adopted  where  the 
Dutch  had  been  in  use. 

(b)  Breech-Loading  Guns. — For  a  long  time  after  the  old 
breech-loading  guns  from  France  came  to  Japan,  no  attention 
was  paid  to  the  study  of  a  breech-loading  gun,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  eras  of  Gwanji  and  Keio  (i  864-1 867),  when  some 
breech-loading  guns  of  nineteenth  century  invention  were  for 
the  first  time  imported,  followed  by  a  further  importation  of 
some  20-pound  Armstrong  guns  (i  Keio  or  1865),  that  people 
began  to  pay  attention  to  the  study  of  its  manufacture. 

Ammunition 

The  manufacture  of  ammunition  made  gradual  develop- 
ment side  by  side  with  the  manufacture  of  small  arms  and 
guns.     For  small  arms  lead  balls  were  used  in  the  case  of  those 


INTRODUCTION  1 5 

early  small  arms  like  the  "  Tanegashima  "  tsutsu,  but  for  later 
small  arms  cylindrical  lead  bullets  with  a  conical  head  were 
used  exclusively.  As  for  guns,  solid  lead  shells  were  in  use  in 
those  earlier  days  after  the  introduction  of  guns  into  this  coun- 
try, but  afterward  in  addition  to  the  lead  ones  cast  iron  shells 
were  made  and  used.  The  use  ol  cast  iron  shells  in  those  days 
was  for  the  purpose  of  making  up  the  shortage  in  the  supply  of 
shells  caused  by  the  high  price  of  lead.  Besides  these  shells, 
stone  and  earthen  ones  were  used  where  shooting  was  done 
with  wooden  or  paper  guns,  which  once  existed. 

The  manufacture  of  shells  began  suddenly  to  develop,  when 
during  the  era  of  Tempo  (1830-1843)  investigations  were 
made  in  the  art  and  method  of  shell  making,  and  some  of  the 
first  shells  were  produced  by  the  hand  of  Egawa  Tarozaemon. 
Shells  made  at  that  time  were  spherical  and  commonly  of  cast 
iron,  and  they  were  already  classified  into  two  distinctive 
kinds,  the  solid  shell  and  the  explosive  shell.  These  shells 
were  widely  manufactured  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  era  of 
Meiji. 

Gunpowder  is  another  thing  that  came  into  use  with  the 
introduction  of  small  arms.  Since  this  article  could  be  manu- 
factured more  simply  than  other  arms  or  ammunition  and  its 
materials  were  obtainable  anywhere  in  the  country,  its  manu- 
facture soon  spread  among  the  people,  until  afterward  it 
was  produced  at  every  point  of  the  Empire.  Thus  before 
the  Restoration  every  feudal  clan  engaged  in  its  manufacture, 
and  the  amount  so  produced,  together  with  that  produced  by 
private  manufacture,  reached  an  enormous  figure. 

Warships 

The  first  foreign  warship  that  came  to  Japan  was  a  British 
one  which  called  at  her  ports  in  August  of  the  5th  year  of 
Bunkwa  ( 1 808) .  Down  to  the  eras  of  Kokwa  and  Kaei  ( 1 844- 
1853)  Japan's  shores  were  yearly  visited  by  Dutch  warships 
and  other  European  and  American  ships  and  war  vessels,  until 
in  the  6th  year  of  Kaei  (1853)  a  fleet  of  American  warships 
entered  Uraga  and  presented  its  credentials.     This  last  event 


1 6  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

threw  the  country  into  heated  discussions,  and  people  agitated 
the  question  of  coast  defense.  In  September  the  Shogunate 
Government,  which  had  become  aware  of  the  impracticability 
of  the  old  law  and  had  already  been  busily  engaged  in  the 
construction  of  batteries  and  the  improvement  of  arms,  at 
last  released  the  nation  from  the  interdict  which  had  been 
strictly  observed  for  many  years  past  against  building  large 
ships.  The  release  once  ordered,  talk  of  warship  building 
became  very  prevalent  and  people  became  deeply  interested  in 
that  business.  The  next  year  (i  Ansei  or  1854),  ^^  May,  a 
two  masted  ship  of  132  feet  in  length  and  30  feet  in  breadth 
was  built  at  the  port  of  Uraga  after  the  model  of  an  English 
ship.  About  the  same  time  three  three-masted  sailing  ships 
were  built  in  the  province  of  Satsuma,  and  another  ship  of 
European  style  at  Etchujima,  Yedo,  the  latter  under  the 
command  and  supervision  of  the  family  of  the  Lord  of  Mito. 
These  were  the  first  ships  built  in  imitation  of  European 
models.  Previous  to  this,  in  June  of  the  9th  year  of  Tempo 
(1838),  an  attempt  had  been  made  by  Lord  Rekko  of  Mito  to 
build  a  warship,  named  Hitachi  Maru  (144  feet  in  length 
and  more  than  38  feet  in  breadth)  of  European  design,  and  a 
plan  was  prepared  by  his  near  attendants,  but,  the  idea  not 
being  approved  by  the  Shogunate  Government,  it  had  to  be 
abandoned. 

These  new  ships,  however,  were  European  only  in  external 
ornamentation,  and  were  either  frail  in  build  or  low  in  speed, 
or  both,  and  therefore  not  fit  for  practical  service.  Moreover, 
they  were  not  perfect  in  the  adjustment  of  draught  and  in  the 
position  of  the  center  of  gravity,  and  therefore  liable  to  be 
overturned  in  case  of  stormy  weather.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  very  great  benefits  were  derived  from  the  building  of 
these  ships.  Many  faults  likely  to  occur  in  shipbuilding  were 
learned,  together  with  the  truth  that  shipbuilding  is  never  an 
easy  work,  all  of  which  went  to  awaken  the  people  to  the 
necessity  of  study  of  the  art  and  open  the  way  for  future 
improvements  of  ships. 

On  the  fourth  of  November,  i  Ansei  (1854),  tidal  waves 


INTRODUCTION  17 

occurred  near  the  port  of  Shimoda,  which  damaged  the 
bottom  of  a  Russian  warship,  the  frigate  Diana,  just  then 
anchoring  at  the  port.  At  that  time  there  was  war  in  Crimea, 
and  British  warships  were  patroUing  the  Oriental  ports, 
threatening  to  attack  Russian  warships.  This  obliged  the 
damaged  Russian  warship  to  ask  the  Japanese  Government 
for  permission  to  enter  Heta,  another  good  anchorage  in  the 
neighborhood,  for  repairs,  which  she  did,  in  order  speedily  to 
quit  these  seas  for  the  north.  The  pei mission  was  granted, 
but  on  her  way  to  Heta  water  entered  the  break,  and  she 
sank  off  the  coast  of  Misaki  in  Izu  Province.  Then  the  Rus- 
sians decided  to  build  a  new  warship  and  asked  the  government 
to  collect  for  them  the  necessary  materials  and  forces  of  black- 
smiths and  shipbuilders,  which  the  latter  agreed  to  do.  The 
Russians,  captain  and  all,  engaged  in  the  work,  while  teaching 
the  Japanese  workmen  how  to  build  ships.  They  urged  the 
men  on  day  and  night,  and,  making  quick  progress,  at  last 
succeeded  in  finishing  two  schooners,  and  sailed  away  with 
these  ships  to  the  north.  A  misfortune  as  it  was  to  the  Rus- 
sians, it  brought  on  the  contrary  a  good  deal  of  fortune  to 
Japan.  During  the  progress  of  the  shipbuilding  the  various 
artisans  and  mechanics  engaged  in  the  work  studied  much  of 
the  European  methods  from  the  work  they  actually  did, 
though  not  without  experiencing  some  hardships,  and  thus 
gained  an  opportunity  of  developing  the  building  of  ships  of 
European  style  in  this  country,  to  their  great  advantage. 
After  this  time  ships  built  by  this  method  were  styled  "  Kimi- 
zawa,"  the  Kimizawa  No.  i.  No.  2  and  No.  3  being  built 
gradually.  A  short  time  afterward,  Russia,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  her  gratitude,  sent  back  to  Japan  those  ships  which 
her  sailors  had  built  in  this  country,  at  the  same  time  present- 
ing her  with  those  fifty- two  guns  that  the  Russian  warship  had 
taken  ashore  when  shipwrecked  at  Shimoda.  This,  facilitat- 
ing the  study  of  the  manufacture  of  guns  and  war  vessels,  was 
a  great  addition  to  the  benefits  already  gained  from  the  mis^ 
adventure  of  the  Russian  warship. 

In  speaking  of  the  development  of  the  Japanese  Navy,  we 


1 8  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

must  refer  to  the  fact  that  it  owed  much  to  the  friendly  advice 
that  the  King  of  Holland  tendered  to  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment to  requite  the  favor  he  had  received  from  this  country 
by  his  many  years'  friendship  with  her. 

On  the  second  of  July,  7  Kaei  (or  i  Ansei,  as  the  name  of  the 
year  was  changed,  1854),  the  Dutch  Consul  Donker  Curtius, 
who  was  resident  in  Nagasaki,  sent  a  letter  to  the  Japanese 
Government,  minutely  explaining  the  state  of  foreign  coun- 
tries and  warning  them  of  the  pressing  need  of  the  defense  of 
the  country.  This,  aided  by  repeated  arguments  made  upon 
a  similar  problem  by  Captain  G.  Favius  of  the  Dutch  warship 
Soembing,  finally  moved  the  government  and  led  to  its  future 
decision  of  organizing  a  new  navy.  That  matter  also  gave 
rise  to  the  following  events.  About  the  same  time,  the  gov- 
ernment had  placed  an  order  with  Holland  for  a  certain  num- 
ber of  ships,  but  it  was  found  that,  owing  to  a  war  (the  Cri- 
mean War)  having  broken  out  just  then  in  Europe,  ships  were 
to  be  treated  as  contraband  of  war  and  were  not  allowed  to  be 
exported.  Under  the  circumstances,  Holland  proposed  that 
she  would  rather  help  this  country  build  the  ships  herself. 
So  she  sent  twenty  or  more  of  her  officers  and  other  subjects 
over  to  this  country  to  take  up  residence  and  stay  as  teachers, 
and  even  went  so  far  as  to  present  this  country  with  the  ship 
Soembing.  Thereupon  the  government  decided  to  appoint 
Yatabori  Age  and  Katsu  Rintaro  to  receive  instrut  tion. 

In  October,  2  Ansei  (1855),  the  Nagasaki  Naval  Training 
School  was  established,  in  which  a  Dutch  naval  officer  Per- 
slecken  and  twenty-one  others  under  him  were  instructors, 
and  the  soldiers  of  the  Tokugawa  Shogunate  and  clans,  Yata- 
bori Kagezo  and  others  of  lower  rank,  were  the  scholars, 
among  whom  were  most  of  those  who  later  proved  themselves 
to  be  important  Japanese  naval  men  (officers  and  the  like) 
at  the  time  of  the  Restoration  of  Meiji. 

In  3  Ansei  (1856),  for  the  purpose  of  practice  in  naval  con- 
struction (warship-building),  a  cutter  was  laid,  which  is  said 
to  have  been  completed  for  more  than  2,000  ryo  (the  unit  of 
the  old  money  in  Japan,  i  ryo  at  about  $3-$5),  in  one  year's 
time. 


INTRODUCTION  I9 

In  April,  4  Ansei  (1857),  the  Warship  Training  School  was 
founded  in  the  military  school  at  Tsukiji,  Yedo.  In  August  of 
the  same  year  the  Yappan  (afterwards  called  the  Kanrinkan) , 
a  three  masted  steamship  that  had  been  ordered  from  Holland, 
arrived  at  port.  As  to  new  instructors  for  naval  training, 
thirty-seven  persons,  a  number  of  Dutch  officers  and  other 
men  under  them  were  on  board,  and  in  September  the  old 
instructors  started  home  from  Nagasaki  by  a  merchantman. 

In  October,  4  Ansei  (1857),  for  the  purpose  of  repairing 
ships  and  making  and  repairing  naval  arms,  iron  works  were 
established  at  Aginoura,  in  the  port  of  Nagasaki.  The  charge 
of  the  construction  of  the  plan  was  put  principally  in  the  hands 
of  Hardes,  a  Dutch  naval  engineer,  who  completed  it  in  April, 
I  Bunkyu  (1861).  Steam  engines,  cupolas  for  iron  and  other 
implements  and  machinery  provided  in  the  iron  works  were 
wholly  purchased  of  Holland.  The  expenses  for  all  these 
amounted  to  about  50,000  ryo.  The  establishment  of  these 
works  was  not  only  for  domestic  purposes,  but  also  for  taking 
foreign  orders,  at  the  same  time  using  them  as  an  organ  for 
selling  coal,  and,  by  so  doing,  enabling  them  to  pay  off  the 
past  fixed  capital  and  meet  the  future  expenditures  with  the 
profits  to  be  obtained.  Thus  a  very  economical  plan  was 
adopted. 

In  May,  5  Ansei  (1858),  the  Yedo  arrived  at  Nagasaki,  a 
three  masted  steam  war  vessel  of  the  same  type  as  the  Kanrin- 
kan, and  afterwards  named  the  Cho-yo-kan,  the  order  for  which 
had  been  given  to  Holland  in  the  previous  year.  ; 

In  July  of  this  year,  four  English  war  vessels  entered  Shina- 
gawa  Bay,  Yedo,  among  which  the  steam  yacht  Emperor, 
afterwards  named  the  Ban-ryu-kan,  was  presented  as  a  gift 
to  the  Shogunate.  Immediately  after  the  receipt  of  this  ship 
by  the  Shogunate,  the  other  ships  left  for  Nagasaki.  In 
February,  6  Ansei  (1859),  an  order  for  a  temporary  closing  of 
the  Naval  Training  Institute  having  been  issued  by  the  Sho- 
gunate, the  Dutch  teachers  left  Nagasaki  for  home,  and  so  the 
naval  training  at  Nagasaki  came  to  an  end. 

In  January,  7  Ansei  (i860),  Japan  dispatched  the  Kanrinkan 
ito  the  United  States  of  America,  so  it  was  the  pioneer  among 


20  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

ships  dispatched  to  Europe  or  America  by  Japan  in  the  name 
of  the  government.  The  purpose  of  the  dispatch  was  to 
inspect  the  foreign  (Western)  conditions  in  general  and  to 
study  the  arts  of  navigation  and  shipbuilding.  In  November, 
3  Bunkyu  (1863),  an  English  ship  Shunly  (built  in  Glasgow, 
463'35  tons)  was  purchased  for  1,000,000  silver  pieces.  In 
April,  3  Bunkyu  (1863),  the  construction  of  the  Naval  Fac- 
tory and  Dockyard  at  the  village  of  Kobe  (the  present  City  of 
Kobe)  in  Settsu  Province  was  started,  but  the  scheme  was 
abandoned  in  November  of  the  following  year,  owing  to  the 
recall  to  Yedo  of  Katsu  Rintaro,  the  specially  appointed  officer 
for  the  work. 

In  November,  i  Gwanji  (1864),  the,  government  devised  a 
plan  to  give  to  the  French  ambassador,  Leon  Roches,  the 
charge  of  the  design  of  the  works,  and  according  to  it  to  estab- 
lish a  naval  dockyard  at  Yokosuka  and  also  a  naval  workshop 
at  Yokohama  to  do  preparatory  work  for  the  dockyard.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  present  Yokosuka  Naval  Dockyard. 
The  details  of  the  construction  of  these  plans  as  announced  in 
January  of  the  following  year,  i  Keio  (1865),  were  in  brief  as 
follows : 

First,  to  set  up  a  workshop  at  Yokohama  that  should  make 
it  its  aim  to  repair  ships  and  to  give  training  in  mechanical 
work.  The  estimate  of  the  expenses  of  the  construction  was 
$2,400,000;  the  term  of  completion,  four  years;  the 
workshop  to  consist  of  the  iron  tempering  mill,  casting  mill, 
pattern-making  mill,  lathe-making  mill,  fittings  shop  and  tim- 
ber works.  The  factory  was  to  be  set  up  entirely  according 
to  European  industrial  style;  the  instructors  to  be  French 
naval  engineers  and  men  under  them;  and  as  pupils  for  the 
first  term  1 00  persons,  the  most  efficient  in  Japanese  indus- 
trial works,  were  to  be  selected.  Implements  and  machinery 
needed  by  the  workshops  were  to  be  purchased  of  France,  the 
estimated  total  cost  of  which  was  2,200,000  francs;  however, 
materials  needed  in  the  works  were  to  be  adopted  from  as 
many  of  the  domestic  products  as  served  the  purpose,  provided 
the  prices  did  not  exceed  those  for  foreign  products.     The 


INTRODUCTION  21 

buildings  to  be  constructed  and  attached  to  the  factory  were 
an  iron  foundry,  two  docks  (large  and  small) ,  three  shipyards, 
armories,  offices,  waiting  rooms  for  the  workmen,  etc.  In  Feb- 
ruary, I  Keio  (1865),  the  construction  of  the  Yokohama  Iron 
Works  was  commenced.  In  May  of  this  year,  the  Shogunate 
sent  Shibata  Hyuga-no-kami  to  France  on  a  mission  to  buy 
various  kinds  of  machinery.  In  September  the  construction 
of  the  Yokosuka  Iron  Works  was  begun.  In  December 
Shibata  Hyuga-no-kami  returned  from  Europe,  ha\'ing  per- 
formed his  mission  to  England  and  France,  with  his  suite 
and  some  French  employes  who  had  been  engaged. 

Work  on  the  construction  of  the  iron  works  of  Yokohama 
and  Yokosuka  was  pushed  day  and  night  and  made  very  rapid 
progress.  According  to  investigations  in  October,  2  Keio 
(1866),  the  foreign  employes  in  service  in  the  construction 
works  numbered  as  many  as  forty-six.  The  two  works  were 
named  the  Japanese  Naval  Iron  Works  of  Yokohama  and  the 
Japanese  Naval  Iron  Works  of  Yokosuka. 

In  January,  2  Keio  (1866),  four  officers  and  men  were  en- 
gaged out  of  the  crew  of  the  French  war  vessel  Guerriere,  and 
were  put  in  charge  of  naval  training  on  board  the  Fuji,  of  the 
Japanese  Navy.  Next  year,  in  October,  3  Keio  (1867),  a 
change  was  made  from  French  teachers  to  English,  and  some 
English  naval  officers  and  warrant  officers  were  engaged  to 
give  instruction  in  naval  training.  In  this  year  the  govern- 
ment made  some  foreign  shipwrights  living  in  Yokohama 
manufacture  boats  and  ship  tackles  as  models  for  similar 
manufactures  in  Japan. 

In  October,  3  Keio  (1867),  the  Shogunate  restored  to  the 
Emperor  the  administration  of  the  national  government, 
which  was  followed  by  a  civil  war;  consequently,  the  naval 
training  was  closed  in  February  of  the  next  year,  and  this 
caused  Katsu  Rintaro  to  request  the  French  and  English  in- 
structors to  cancel  their  contracts  by  announcing  to  them  the 
internal  situation ;  and  it  finally  came  about  that  those  foreign- 
ers left  this  country  for  home  and  the  work  of  training  was 
entirely  abandoned.     As  hitherto  mentioned,  since  her  with- 


22  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

drawal  of  the  restriction  on  shipbuilding  (September,  6  Kaei, 
1853),  Japan  had  seen  the  time  gradually  become  ripe  for 
her  own  warships  to  be  built  by  herself,  and  consequently  in 
May,  5  Ansei  (1854),  the  Shogunate  built  the  ship  Hoo-maru, 
in  imitation  of  the  European  style,  in  the  port  of  Uraga, 
Sagami ;  also  a  second  one,  the  Shohei-maru,  in  the  clan  of 
Kagoshima,  Satsuma.  To  the  second,  was  added  in  June,  2 
Ansei  (1855),  ^  war  vessel  Kwanko-kan,  presented  by  Holland 
as  a  gift;  and  people,  having  for  the  first  time  been  eye  wit- 
nesses of  the  skilfulness  and  exquisiteness  of  the  steam  engine, 
were  now  so  enthusiastic  about  the  work  that  they  sought 
eagerly  for  new  knowledge  of  the  art  and  practice  in  the  ways 
of  management.  Besides,  things  were  moving  toward  such  a 
state  of  conditions  that  coast  defense  should  not  be  neglected 
even  a  moment,  that  is  to  say,  as  the  occasional  opening  of 
ports  to  foreigners  threatened  to  result  in  a  succession  of  do- 
mestic troubles  and  external  disasters  one  after  another,  the 
Shogunate  gave  orders  to  the  clans  to  prepare  ships  against 
any  emergency.  Upon  this,  the  clans  strove  with  one  an- 
other in  building  or  importing  large  ships.  Of  the  great 
number  of  war  vessels  and  ships  for  military  service  of  Euro- 
pean style  thus  gathered  by  the  Shogunate  and  clans  in  the 
fifteen  years  from  i  Ansei  (1854)  to  4  Keio  (or  i  Meiji,  1868), 
only  the  part  that  can  be  found  in  the  records  reached  a  large 
total  as  follows : 

(i)  Nine  war  vessels  owned  by  the  government :  2  presented 
by  the  Dutch  King  and  British  Queen,  i  each;  7  bought  for 
$1,350,000;  4  were  built  in  Holland,  lin  England,  3  in  the 
United  States,  and  i  in  Germany. 

Thirty-six  military  ships:  11  built  in  Japan  (i  at  Uraga,  3 
at  Kagoshima,  2 at  Ishikawa-Jima,  i  at  Shimoda,  2at  Nagasaki, 
2  at  Hakodate) ;  14  built  in  England,  10  in  the  United  States, 
and  I  in  Germany.  The  cost  of  the  1 1  built  in  Japan  and  i 
built  in  England  is  not  known.     The  24  others  cost  $1 ,806,000. 

The  total  is  45  ships.  The  cost  of  the  33  mentioned  above 
is  $3,336,000. 


INTRODUCTION  23 

(2)  Ninety-three  military  ships  owned  by  the  clans:  14 
built  in  Japan,  57  in  England,  17  in  the  United  States,  i  in 
France,  2  in  Holland,  and  2  others,  the  place  of  building  un- 
known. The  cost  of  the  14  built  in  Japan  and  12  built  in  other 
countries  is  not  known;  the  remaining  67  cost  $4,494,000  and 
8,100  ryo.  (The  last  price  is  for  one  ship  bought  by  the 
Uwajima  clan.) 

The  grand  total  is  138  ships. 

Of  these  ships  the  first  steamer  built  entirely  by  the  Japa- 
nese was  the  Chiyodagata:  work  begun  in  May,  2  Bunkyu  (1862), 
at  Ishikawa-Jima,  Yedo,  launched  in  July,  3  Bunkyu  (1863), 
and  completed  in  May,  2  Keio  (1866).  Thus  it  took  four 
years  from  the  start  to  the  completion  of  work.  The  reason 
was  that  in  the  course  of  the  work  the  man  in  charge  often 
left  on  a  journey  and  each  time  the  work  had  to  be  suspended. 
It  is  said  that  the  expenses  for  the  warship  amounted  to  about 
70,000  yen.  It  may  be  remarked  again  that  the  ship  was  the 
first  one  that  was  completed  by  Japanese  by  their  own  design 
and  labor. 

The  following  table  shows  some  particulars  of  the  ships 
built  after  European  style  at  domestic  yards  previous  to  the 
Restoration : 


24  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

Ships  of  Domestic  Manufacture  Owned  by  the  Shogunate 


Name  of 
Ship 

Style 

Breadth  and 
Length 

Koku 

(Japanese 

Tonnage) 

or  h.  p. 

Date  of 
Construc- 
tion 

Place  of 
Construc- 
tion 

Ho-o-maru. . 

Bark 

May, 
I  Ansei 
(1854) 

Uraga, 
Sagami 
Province 

^hohei-maru 

" 

Length  lo  ken 

I  Ansei 

Kago- 

maru 

(60  ft.) 

(1854) 

shima, 

Breadth  4  ken 

(24  ft.) 

Depth  3  ken 

(18  ft.) 

Satsuma 
Province 

Hozui-maru 

(1 

(1 

Taigen-maru 

,, 

Length  23  ken, 

3  Ansei 

" 

Kyokujitsu- 

Ishikawa- 

maru 

1  shaku 

(139  ft.) 
Breadth  5  ken, 

2  shaku 
(32  ft.) 

Depth  4  ken 
(24  ft.) 

(1856) 

Jima, 

Tokyo 

City 

Kimizawa- 

Schooner 

Shimoda, 

gata 

Idzu 
Province 

Nagasaki- 

Cutter 

Length  12  ken 

4  Ansei 

Nagasaki 

gata 

(72  ft.) 
Breadth  3  ken 
(18  ft.) 

(1857) 

Hakodate- 

Schooner 

Length  18  ken 

Hakodate 

maru 

(108  ft.) 
Breadth  4  ken 
(24  ft.) 

Kameda- 

" 

(1 

maru  .  .  .  . 

Sento-maru . 

Steam- 
power, 
screw 
propel- 
ler 

Nagasaki 

Chiyoda- 

" 

Length  17  ken. 

60  h.  p. 

Launched 

Ishikawa- 

gata 

2  shaku 

in  I 

Jima, 

(104  ft.) 

Gwanji 

Yedo 

Brealdth  2^  ken 

(1864) 

City 

(15  ft.) 

Completed 
in  Dec,  2 
Keio 
(1866) 

INTRODUCTION  -  25 

Ships  of  Domestic  Manufacture  Owned  by  the  Clans 


Name  of 
Ship 

Style 

and 

Material 

Breadth  and 
Length 

Koku 

(Japanese 

Tonnage) 

or  h.  p. 

Date  of 
Construc- 
tion 

Place  of 
Construc- 
tion 

Kaisei-maru 

Schooner 

Length  i8  ken, 

January, 

Sendai 

Wooden 

2  shaku 

6  Ansei 

Clan, 

(no  ft.) 

(1859) 

Samuk- 

Breadth  4  ken, 

azezawa. 

2  shaku 

Oshu 

(25  ft.) 

Province 

Shimpu- 

Cutter 

Length  12  ken 

50  h.  p. 

April, 

Nagasaki, 

maru 

Wooden 

(72  ft.) 

5  Ansei 

Hizen 

Breadth  J  ken 

(1858) 

Clan 

(18  ft.) 

Depth  2  ken 

(12  ft.) 

Ryofu-maru 

Steam- 

10  h.  p. 

October, 

Saga, 

power, 

I  Keio 

Hizen 

paddle- 

(1865) 

Clan 

wheeled 

Wooden 

Tsusai-maru 

Schooner 
Wooden 

Awa  Clan 

Jimpu- 

Schooner 

Length  18  ken 

5  Ansei 

Tsu,  Tsu 

maru 

Wooden 

(108  ft.) 
Breadth  5  ken 

(30  ft.) 
Depth  3  ken, 

4  shaku 

(22  ft.) 

(1858) 

Clan 

Fukkai- 

Schooner 

Akita  Clan 

maru ..... 

Wooden 

Kosai-maru . 

Bark 

Length  17^  ken 

Matsuyama 

Wooden 

(103  ft.  6  in.) 
Breadth  3  ken, 

4  shaku 

(22  ft.) 
Depth  3  ken 

(18  ft.) 

Clan, 
Shingu, 
Kii 
Province 

Himeji, 

Hayatori- 

Schooner 

Length  15  ken 

450  koku 

June, 

Himeji 

maru 

Wooden 

(90  ft.) 
Breadth  3  ken 
(18  ft.) 

5  Ansei 
(1858) 

Clan 
Himeji, 

Kinkwa- 

Schooner 

Length  8  ken 

100  koku 

June, 

Himeji 

maru 

Wooden 

(48  ft.) 
Breadth  i  ken 
4  shaku 
(10  ft.) 

6  Ansei 
(1859) 

Clan 

26  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL  SURVEY 

Ships  of  Domestic  Manufacture  Owned  by  the  Clans — Continued 


Name  of 
Ship 

Style 

and 

Material 

Breadth  and 
Length 

Koku 

(Japanese 

Tonnage) 

or  h.  p. 

Date  of 
Construc- 
tion 

Place  of 
Construc- 
tion 

Ryujin-maru 

<( 

Length  i6ken, 

4  shaku 

(lOO  ft.) 
Breadth  3  ken, 

4  shaku 

(22  ft.) 
Depth  3  ken, 

4  shaku 

(22  ft.) 

Shonai, 
Shonai 
Clan 

Jingo-maru  .  . 

i< 

Length  1 8  ken 

1200  koku 

June, 

Himeji, 

(108  ft.) 

3  Bunkyu 

Himeji 

Breadth  4  ken 

(1863) 

Clan 

(24  ft.) 

Ansai-maru.  . 

Bark 

Length  21  ken, 

660  koku 

January, 

Aomori, 

Wooden 

4  shaku 

2  Keio 

Oshu 

(130  ft.) 

(1866) 

Province, 

Breadth  5  ken. 

Tsugaru 

2  shaku 

Clan 

(32  ft.) 

Jimpu-maru. . 

Schooner 

Length  18  ken. 

800  koku 

January, 

Tomonot- 

Wooden 

5  shaku 

3  Bunkyu 
(1863) 

su,  Bingo 

(113  ft.) 

Province, 

Breadth  4  ken. 

Fuku- 

'.. 

I  shaku 

yama 

(25  ft.) 

Clan 

Depth  4  ken 

(24  ft.) 

Ono-maru  . . . 

(1 

Length  18  ken 

(108  ft.) 
Breadth  4  ken 

(24  ft.) 

Depth  3  ken 

(18  ft.) 

Doi,  Ono, 
Echizen 
Province 

Total 25  ships 


CHAPTER  II 
FROM  THE  RESTORATION  TO  THE  SINO-JAPANESE  WAR 

The  Restoration  of  the  Imperial  Government  of  Meiji  was 
the  greatest  undertaking  ever  accomplished  by  the  Japanese 
nation.  On  the  one  hand,  it  overturned  the  despotic  military 
government  that  had  existed  for  seven  hundred  years  and 
brought  back  everything  to  the  former  conditions  of  the  old 
days  of  the  Imperial  Government;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  national  isolation  policy  adhered 
to  for  two  hundred  years  by  the  Tokugawa  Government,  fol- 
lowed by  friendly  intercourse  with  Western  countries,  however 
far  distant.  Thus  all  branches  of  Western  learning  were 
introduced  and  the  ways  and  manners  of  those  countries 
widely  adopted.  So  enthusiastically  were  these  changes  ef- 
fected that  in  course  of  time  a  complete  revolution  took  place 
here  in  Japan  in  the  dominions  of  matter  and  mind.  Among 
other  things,  the  change  in  the  institutions  relating  to  the 
military  system  was  so  remarkable  that  arms  and  warships 
were  entirely  altered  and  there  remained  scarcely  any  vestige 
of  them  as  they  were  in  their  old  days.  'It  is  quite  natural 
that  all  those  changes  should  be  made,  in  view  of  the  condition 
of  the  Empire  about  the  time  of  the  Restoration,  when  arms 
and  warships  had  an  important  bearing  upon  strategy,  and 
any  improvement  or  progress  made  therein  was  a  very  keen 
problem  in  the  national  defense  of  those  days. 

Although  it  was  not  merely  a  single  reason  but  divers  others 
that  brought  about  the  great  Restoration  of  Meiji,  the  princi- 
pal one  was,  as  is  evident  from  records  of  that  time,  that,  when 
this  country  began  intercourse  with  Western  nations  sometime 
before  the  Restoration,  the  people  who  actually  observed  the 
powerful  and  excellent  arms  and  warships  imported,  recog- 
nized their  wonderful  power  and  felt  alarm  over  the  marvelous 
development,  beyond  their  imagination,  of  Western  countries, 

87 


28  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

and  at  last  being  awakened  from  a  long  sleep,  their  minds  took 
a  new  turn  which  led  to  the  Restoration. 

Thus  the  country  was  necessarily  obliged  to  make  improved 
arms  and  warships.  But  as  the  enormous  amount  of  expense 
involved  was  an  important  problem  for  Japan  in  the  economic 
conditions  of  that  time,  it  was  very  difficult  to  fill  the  whole  of 
the  demands  all  at  once.  Much  more  so,  as  the  gold  and  silver 
that  had  flowed  out  to  foreign  countries  for  twenty  or  thirty 
years  before  the  Restoration,  owing  to  the  purchase  of  arms 
and  ships,  was  now  rising  to  such  an  enormous  amount  that  the 
national  Treasury  was  drying  up  by  degrees  and  the  finances 
after  the  Restoration  gave  more  difficulty.  In  addition  to 
this,  the  machine-making  industry  in  Japan  in  those  days  was  in 
a  very  primitive  state,  and  there  were  found  only  two  or  three 
military  factories  established  under  the  Shogunate  that  could 
be  reckoned  under  the  name  of  machine-making  industry. 
As  the  leaders,  engineers  and  workmen  were  all  without  much 
experience  in  the  industry,  there  was  no  likelihood  of  the  work 
being  mastered  and  advanced.  And,  though  fortunately 
some  European  countries  had  enough  good  will  to  send  expe- 
rienced officers  and  engineers  and  give  every  assistance  in  de- 
veloping the  military  industry,  and  all  of  these  efforts  doubt- 
less brought  about  ultimate  advancement  in  the  industries  of 
this  country  at  large,  yet  the  difficulty  was  that,  owing  to  the 
secrecy  observed  by  every  country  in  matters  relating  to 
military  industry,  it  was  almost  impossible  for  the  mechanical 
learner  to  get  at  the  secret  of  the  thing  desired,  as  in  the  case 
of  other  industries.  These  facts  retarded  the  industry  very 
much. 

This  condition  continued  for  rather  a  long  time  after  the 
Restoration,  and  the  development  in  military  industry  was  all 
the  slower.  Under  those  circumstances,  most  of  the  goods  re- 
quired in  the  Japanese  military  system,  especially  arms  and 
warships,  which  occupy  the  important  places,  for  the  period 
from  the  Restoration  to  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  had  to  be 
bought  from  foreign  markets. 

A  few  years  before  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  about  the  time 


RESTORATION   TO   SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  29 

that  the  Japanese  constitution  was  promulgated,  an  advance 
in  miUtary  industry  gradually  became  noticeable,  due  to  the 
tendency  of  the  time,  in  which  general  progress  in  industry  was 
being  made,  and  also  due  to  the  improvement  of  the  Imperial 
finances.  In  the  following  paragraphs  will  be  found  military 
industry  and  naval  industry  separately  treated. 

Industries  of  the  Army 

The  factories  under  the  military  administration  in  existence 
during  the  period  between  the  Restoration  of  Meiji  and  the 
Sino- Japanese  War  were  arsenals  in  Tokyo  and  Osaka,  prede- 
cessors of  the  present  ones,  and  the  woolen  cloth  factory  at 
Senju,  Tokyo.  The  former  was  to  manufacture  and  repair 
arms,  ammunitions,  ignition  tools,  implements,  materials,  etc., 
and  the  latter  to  manufacture  woolen  cloth  used  for  military 
uniforms  and  other  woolen  goods  also  a  part  of  the  military 
outfit. 

Of  this  latter  factory  enough  will  be  written  under  the  head- 
ing of  "The  Clothing  Industry"  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  and 
therefore  we  will  not  go  further  into  this,  but  will  give  some 
account  of  the  former  ones  here  as  our  chief  subject. 

As  was  shown  in  the  introduction,  the  manufacturing  of 
arms,  ammunition,  ignition  tools,  etc.,  in  Western  style  had 
its  beginning  before  the  Restoration,  so  that  the  predecessor 
of  both  the  arsenals  of  Tokyo  and  Osaka  succeeded  the  factory 
and  the  work  performed  by  the  Tokugawa  Shogunate.  After 
a  good  many  alterations,  abolitions,  combinations  and  separa- 
tions gone  through  in  that  transitional  period  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Meiji  Era  which  extends  from  the  old  age  over  to  the  new, 
in  October,  12  Meiji  (1879),  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  and  the  Osaka 
Arsenal  appeared,  which  had  their  business  and  working  sys- 
tems well  arranged ;  and  thenceforth  to  the  time  of  the  Sino- 
Japanese  War,  some  other  reforms  having  been  made,  they 
saw  their  work  gradually  developing. 

Before  the  development  of  the  manufacturing  of  arms,  am- 
munition and  ignition  tools  is  further  mentioned,  an  outline  of 
the  history  of  each  of  the  two  arsenals  running  over  the  above 


\ 


30  MILITARY  industries:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

period  will  now  be  presented  under  two  subheadings,  the 
Tokyo  Arsenal  and  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  each  divided  into  three 
periods  of  time  according  to  the  changes  undergone  from  the 
beginning  of  the  work. 

Weapon  Factories 

(I)  The  Tokyo  Arsenal  and  Its  Predecessor.  Period  of  the 
Arms  Office  and  the  Arsenal. — In  January,  i  Meiji  (1868), 
naval  and  military  sections  were  established  which  were 
changed  in  February  to  the  Bureau  of  Military  Affairs.  In 
the  intercalary  April  ^  the  bureau  was  closed,  and  an  official  of 
military  affairs  was  appointed  who  took  charge  of  the  two  bu- 
reaus of  the  army  and  navy  and  four  offices  of  Fortification, 
Arms,  Warships  and  Horses.  The  Arms  Office  was  to  admin- 
ister the  business  relating  to  military  arms  and  the  navy,  and 
to  unify  them.  In  order  to  collect  arms  it  undertook  the 
buying  up  of  the  factories  for  manufacturing  or  repairing  arms 
that  had  hitherto  been  established  by  clans. 

For  this  purpose,  first  of  all,  it  bought  up  the  Sekiguchi  fac- 
tory in  Koishikawa,  Tokyo,  worked  by  the  Tokugawa  Shogun- 
ate,  and  set  it  to  manufacturing  arms  as  a  government  organ. 
This  was  the  pioneer  in  manufacturing  arms  after  the  Restora- 
tion and  at  the  same  time  the  origin  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  November,  2  Meiji  (1869),  the  Arms  Office  was  closed, 
and  in  place  of  it  the  arsenal  was  established  in  February,  3 
Meiji  (1870).  In  October  of  the  same  year,  some  of  thework- 
shops  of  the  Sekiguchi  factory  were  moved  partly  to  the  site  of 
the  former  high  explosives  mill  inside  of  Takebashi  Gate,  and 
partly  to  that  old  place  of  Imperial  inspection  at  Fukiage,  and 
a  part  of  the  arms  were  manufactured  in  them. 

In  July,  4  Meiji  (1871),  the  business  office  of  the  arsenal  and 
the  workshops  inside  of  Takebashi  Gate  were  moved  to  the 
grounds  of  the  old  mansion  of  the  Mito  clan  on  the  outside  of 
Koishikawa  Gate,  and  the  old  buildings  in  the  enclosure  were 
used  as  working  places  and  warehouses. 

*  According  to  the  old  calendar  in  Japan,  where  30  days  were  given  to  every 
month,  there  was  a  sort  of  leap  year  which  contained  a  month  more  than  the 
common  year.     The  month  as  such  was  called  an  intercalary  month. 


RESTORATION   TO   SINO- JAPANESE   WAR  3 1 

In  November  of  the  same  year,  the  training  institute  for 
small  arms,  which  was  the  commencement  of  the  education  of 
the  artillery  artificers  and  the  origin  of  the  Artillery  Artificer 
Training  School  was  set  up. 

In  July,  5  Meiji  (1872),  a  sum  of  over  34,500  ryo  was  appro- 
priated for  building  the  small  arms  factory,  and  construction 
was  immediately  started. 

After  April,  4  Meiji  (1871),  the  manufacture  of  arms  in  the 
whole  country  was  carried  on  under  the  sole  management  of 
the  arsenal. 

In  August,  7  Meiji  (1874),  the  ground  of  the  Itabashi  pow- 
der mill  was  settled  upon. 

In  January,  8  Meiji  (1875),  a  machine  house  for  small  arms 
and  the  heat  tinting  works  were  built. 

Period  0}  the  Head  Arsenal. — In  February,  8  Meiji  (1875), 
the  regime  of  the  arsenal  was  revised  and  regulations  for 
the  Ordnance  Committee  and  the  head  and  branch  arsenal 
were  enacted ;  thereby  the  head  arsenal  of  the  First  Ordnance 
Committee,  chiefly  in  charge  of  the  manufacturing  and  repair- 
ing of  ignition  tools,  ammunition,  other  arms  and  materials 
was  established  in  Tokyo. 

The  organization  of  the  head  arsenal  was  as  follows: 


Head  Arsenal 


Head  Office 


Head  Bureau 
Bureau  of  Examination 
,  Bureau  of  Inspection  of  Material 


Small  arms  works 
High  explosive  mill 
ir-,^+^...Vo      J  Saddle  works 
^^'^t*'"^^--     Timber  works 

I  Tempering  works 
[  Iron  works 


^  Itabashi  Factory  Powder  Mill 

In  March,  8  Meiji  (1875),  the  powder  mill  in  the  Itabashi 
works  was  established. 

In  December  of  the  same  year,  the  drying  place  of  mercuric 
fulminate  was  built  in  the  head  arsenal. 

In  June,  9  Meiji  (1876),  the  small  arms  forge,  the  ammuni- 
tion factory  and  the  fire  arrow  factory  were  built  in  the  head 
arsenal. 


32  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

In  December  of  the  same  year,  the  equipment  of  the  Itabashi 
powder  mill  was  completed. 

As  the  work  in  the  high  explosive  mill  increased  owing  to  the 
Satsuma  Rebellion  in  February,  lo  Meiji  (1877),  the  machines 
for  manufacturing  in  the  high  explosive  mill  were  multiplied 
in  the  head  arsenal.  But  as  those  were  yet  insufficient  to  fill 
the  demand,  a  temporary  high  explosive  mill  was  established 
on  the  Koishikawa  parade  ground  (the  site  of  the  present 
Misakicho,  Kanda). 

The  workmen  employed  in  the  head  arsenal  during  the  war 
exceeded  five  hundred  a  day,  so  that  some  extra  female  hands 
were  engaged  for  the  work,  which  marked  the  beginning  of  the 
employment  of  girls  in  military  works  in  Japan.  In  June,  the 
enlargement  of  all  the  mills  in  the  arsenal  was  completed.  In 
the  same  month,  on  account  of  the  war,  the  quantity  of  the 
ammunition  manufactured  was  so  great  that  the  magazines 
were  feared  to  be  too  small  to  take  it  all  in,  and  special  powder 
magazines  were  built  at  Aoyama  and  Izumishinden.  The 
number  of  powder  mills  was  also  increased  in  the  Itabashi 
Branch  Arsenal  and  some  newly  set  up  on  the  ground  reserved 
for  military  use  at  Takinogawa. 

In  March,  11  Meiji  (1878),  the  Takinogawa  Branch  Bureau 
of  the  powder  mill  was  established  in  the  village  of  Takinogawa. 

In  12  Meiji  (1879),  the  finance  law  was  revised,  in  which  the 
arsenal  expenses  that  had  been  treated  under  the  General 
Account  were  removed  to  the  Special  Account  as  "Payment 
for  Works."  In  September  of  the  same  year  the  work  of 
manufacturing  at  the  Takinogawa  Branch  Works  was  com- 
menced. 

Period  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. — In  October,  12  Meiji  (1879), 
arsenal  regulations  were  enacted  by  which  the  head  arsenal 
was  closed  and  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  was  settled  on  that  site, 
and  the  business  of  the  old  arsenal  was  divided  into  two  parts, 
of  which  one  was  put  under  the  charge  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal, 
consisting  principally  of  the  manufacturing  and  repairing  of 
arms  and  ammunition,  and  the  other  was  put  in  charge  of 
the  headquarters  of  the  first  Ordnance  Committee,  consisting 
of  the  storing  and  distribution  of  arms. 


RESTORATION    TO   SINO-JAPANESE   WAR  33 

The  organization  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  at  that  time  was  as 
follows : 

Office  of  general  management 
Small  arms  mill 
Ammunition  factory 
Tokyo  Arsenal  \  "^gh  explosive  mill 
Gun  repainng  mill 
,  Powder  mill 

Department  in  charge  of  apprentices 
[  Accountant's  office 

In  the  same  month  the  preparatory  work  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Iwabana  powder  mill  was  started. 

In  March,  13  Meiji  (1880),  ground  for  the  same  powder  mill 
was  purchased,  and  in  May  construction  was  commenced. 

In  August,  14  Meiji  (1881),  the  construction  of  the  ammuni- 
tion factory  and  the  installation  of  the  machinery  were  com- 
pleted. 

In  October,  15  Meiji  (1882),  manufacturing  at  the  Iwabana 
powder  mill  was  commenced. 

In  January,  16  Meiji  (1883),  the  name  of  the  powder  mill 
attached  to  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  was  changed  to  the  Itabashi 
powder  mill. 

In  March,  17  Meiji  (1884),  the  arsenal  regulations  were  re- 
vised and  a  part  of  the  system  of  the  organization  of  the  arsenal 
was  changed.  The  special  change  made  was  that  the  educa- 
tion of  the  apprentices  that  had  hitherto  been  given  in  the 
arsenal  was  set  apart  from  the  system,  afterwards  to  be  given 
at  a  schoolhouse  built  separately. 

In  18  Meiji  (1885),  the  scale  of  the  small  arms  mill,  high 
explosive  mill,  etc.,  was  enlarged. 

In  19  Meiji  (1886),  the  ammunition  factory  was  enlarged 
and  some  newly  designed  machines  were  installed. 

In  April,  20  Meiji  (1887),  the  payment  for  the  expenses  of 
the  arsenal,  which,  according  to  the  method  previously  pur- 
sued, had  in  all  cases  been  taken  out  of  the  expense  account 
for  works  was  discontinued,  and  thereafter  all  except  the  ex- 
penses needed  directly  for  the  works  were  defrayed  out  of  the 
general  expense  account. 

In  November,  the  Itabashi  powder  mill  was  enlarged  and 
adopted  steam  as  its  motive  power  by  installing  steam  engines 
and  boilers. 


34  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL    SURVEY 

In  March,  22  Meiji  (1889),  the  use  in  the  army  of  the  rifle 
of  the  old  Murata  type  was  discontinued  and  the  magazine 
rifle  of  the  Murata  type  was  adopted,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  system  of  the  small  arms  mill  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  was 
altered. 

In  March,  23  Meiji  (1890),  the  finance  law  of  military  works 
was  enacted,  in  which  it  was  arranged  that  all  fixed  and  work- 
ing capital  was  to  be  given  over  to  the  arsenal  and  the  expenses 
for  the  works  were  to  be  paid  out  of  the  income  from  the  work 
account  and  miscellaneous  income  account  thereof,  that  is  to 
say,  the  law  adopted  a  special  account  system. 

In  April  of  the  same  year,  for  financial  reasons,  a  part  of 
the  gun  repairing  factory  was  closed  and  leased  to  the  public. 

In  August  of  the  same  year,  the  arsenal  regulations  were 
revised,  by  which  the  name  of  the  high  explosive  factory  was 
changed  to  the  ignition  tools  manufactory  and  the  gun  repair- 
ing factory  to  the  factory  for  gun  accessories. 

In  November,  24  Meiji  (1891),  a  part  of  the  arsenal  regula- 
tions was  revised,  in  which  the  Meguro  powder  mill  that  had 
hitherto  been  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Navy  Department 
was  removed  to  that  of  the  War  Department  and  attached  to 
the  Tokyo  Arsenal;  but,  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  budget  for 
the  fiscal  year  of  25  Meiji  (1892),  it  was  not  put  under  the  new 
control  until  April  of  26  Meiji  (1893). 

In  May  of  26  Meiji  (1893),  the  factories  for  manufacturing 
gun  cotton  and  smokeless  powder  were  built  in  the  Itabashi 
powder  mill. 

In  December  of  the  same  year,  the  ignition  tools  manufac- 
tory in  the  arsenal  was  closed  and  its  works  were  combined 
with  the  ammunition  factory. 

In  the  same  month,  in  the  manufactory  for  gun  accessories 
a  delicate  instrument  factory  for  manufacturing  range  finders, 
training  gears  and  other  field  glasses  was  built  under  the  guid- 
ance of  an  Italian  major  of  artillery,  Bracialini. 

In  April  of  27  Meiji  (1894),  the  gun  cotton  factory  and  the 
smokeless  powder  factory  of  the  Itabashi  powder  mill  were 
combined   under   the   name   of   the   third   factory,   and   the 


RESTORATION   TO   SINO- JAPANESE   WAR  35 

Taklnogawa  branch  was  changed  to  the  name  of  the  Takino- 
gawa  powder  mill. 

(II)  The  Osaka  Arsenal  and  Its  Predecessor.  The  Period 
of  the  Arsenal  and  the  Ordnance  Factory. — In  February  of  3 
Meiji  (1870),  the  arsenal  was  established  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Military  (Army  and  Navy)  Department  on  the 
site  of  the  rice  granary  in  the  inner  citadel  of  the  Osaka  castle ; 
machinery  fitted  up  in  the  Nagasaki  iron  foundry  that  had 
been  directed  by  the  Tokugawa  Shogunate,  together  with 
some  of  the  workmen  of  the  same  foundry,  were  brought  into 
service  there,  and  in  April  business  was  begun,  for  which  the 
old  guard  house  within  the  Gate  of  Aoyaguchi  of  the  Osaka 
castle  was  put  to  use  as  the  provisional  office;  in  June  the 
arsenal  was  removed  to  the  factory  just  built  in  the  Osaka 
castle  ground,  and  there  the  work  was  commenced.  This  was 
the  origin  of  the  Osaka  Arsenal. 

In  February  of  5  Meiji  (1872),  the  name  of  the  Osaka 
Arsenal  was  changed  to  the  Ordnance  Factory,  its  organization 
Jbeing  as  follows: 

Accountant's  office 

Foundry 

Forge 

Lathing  works 

Leather  ware  works 

Timber  works 


Ordnance  Factory 


The  Period  of  the  Branch  Arsenal. — In  February,  8  Meiji 
'(1890),  the  regulations  of  the  Ordnance  Committee  and  the 
head  and  branch  arsenal  were  enacted,  by  which  the  ordnance 
factory  was  given  the  new  name  of  the  branch  arsenal,  being 
organized  as  follows: 

(First  Section  (General  Administration) 
Second  Section  (Accounting) 
Section  of  Construction 


'Branch  Arsenal 


Second  Bureau  ( |f^!!°"  «J  Inspection 
\  Section  of  Storage 

Copper  gun  foundry 
High  explosive  mill 
Saddle  works 
Timber  works 
Forge 

Kagoshima  Branch  Factory  (  High  explosive  mill 

*  ^  \  Ignition  tools  manufactory 

Wakayama  Branch  Factory — high  explosive  mill 


36  MILITARY  industries:  historical  survey 

/  At  that  time,  the  area  of  the  grounds  of  these  works  and  the 
connected  grounds  which  were  administered  by  the  branch 
arsenal  was  above  276,000  tsuho  (about  230  acres)  in  all,  and 
above  12,900  tsuho  (about  11  acres)  of  it  was  the  lot  for  the 
buildings. 

In  October  of  the  same  year,  for  a  certain  administrative  rea- 
son, the  Wakayama  branch  factory  was  closed. 

In  November,  9  Meiji  (1876),  the  management  of  accounts 
of  the  branch  arsenal  that  had  hitherto  been  under  the  charge 
of  the  paymasters  of  the  Osaka  garrison  was  changed,  and  an 
independent  official  was  appointed  in  the  branch  arsenal. 

As  in  February  of  10  Meiji  (1877)  the  Satsuma  Rebellion 
took  place,  the  Hagi  small  arms  factory  was  moved  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  branch  arsenal,  where  in  addition  to  this 
more  high  explosive  mills  were  built  to  make  quickly  small 
arms  and  ammunition. 

The  Period  of  the  Osaka  Arsenal. — In  October,  12  Meiji 
(1879),  the  arsenal  regulations  were  enacted,  by  which  the 
Osaka  Branch  Arsenal  was  closed  and  the  Osaka  Arsenal  was 
established,  which  was  organized  as  follows: 

Section  of  general  management 
Gun  works 
Shot  works 
Osaka  Arsenal  1  Vehicle  works 

High  explosive  mill 
Small  arms  repairing  works 
,  Department  of  accounts 

The  business  relating  to  the  storing  and  supply  of  arms 
which  up  to  that  time  was  that  of  the  Osaka  Branch  Arsenal 
and  the  ordnance  and  powder  magazines  belonging  to  this 
business,  together  with  the  arms,  ammunition,  etc.,  stored  in 
them,  were  then  put  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  head  office  of 
the  second  Ordnance  Committee. 

In  January,  15  Meiji  (1884),  the  gun  manufactory  building, 
the  construction  of  which  was  begun  in  8  Meiji  (1875),  was 
completed,  and  in  February  the  work  of  gun  making  was 
commenced. 

In  April  of  the  same  year,  an  institute  for  the  examination  of 
guns  was  established  on  the  coast  of  Otsugawa  in  the  Izumi 


RESTORATION   TO   SIN  O- JAPANESE  WAR  37 

Province  and  was  named  the  Otsugawa  Gun  Examination 
Institute. 

In  June,  17  Meiji  (1884),  the  small  arms  repairing  factory 
was  closed  and  its  works  were  combined  with  the  vehicle  works. 

In  September,  work  was  started  on  an  enlargement  of  the 
buildings  of  the  gun  works  and  the  vehicle  works. 

In  January,  18  Meiji  (1885),  for  the  purpose  of  manufactur- 
ing shells  for  coast  guns  the  shot  works  were  enlarged.  ; : 

In  September,  a  railway  was  laid  in  the  arsenal  for  the  first 
time  to  facilitate  the  transportation  of  materials  and  manu- 
factures. 

In  February,  19  Meiji  (1886),  the  construction  of  the  works 
for  making  the  gun  carriage  for  coast  guns  was  completed,  and 
manufacture  was  at  once  begun. 

In  March,  the  Department  of  Accounts  was  closed,  and  the 
vice  superintendent  had  charge  of  the  accounting  thereafter. 

In  January,  20  Meiji  (1884),  the  shell  lathing  works  were 
completed,  and  lathing  work  thereafter  made  great  progress. 

In  January,  21  Meiji  (1888),  a  laboratory  was  established 
which  was  perfectly  equipped  for  all  chemical  experiments  on 
materials,  as  qualitative  analysis,  quantitative  analysis,  etc. 

In  22  Meiji  (1889),  a  railway  was  laid  connecting  every 
factory  and  magazine  in  the  enclosure  to  facilitate  the  storage 
of  materials  and  manufactures  and  thereafter  transportation 
became  very  easy. 

In  April,  23  Meiji  (1890),  the  finance  law  for  the  military 
works  took  effect,  and  all  incomes  and  expenditures  of  the  ar- 
senal were  to  be  treated  as  special  accounts. 

In  August,  the  arsenal  regulations  were  revised,  by  which 
inspectors  of  manufactures  were  appointed  and  branch  offices 
of  the  arsenal  were  established  at  the  cities  of  Nagoia,  Hiro- 
shima and  Kumamoto. 

In  November,  24  Meiji  (1891),  another  gun  examination 
institute  was  established  on  the  coast  of  Haruki,  Izumi  Prov- 
ince. 

In  December,  26  Meiji  (1893),  the  arsenal  regulations  were 
revised  by  transferring  the  charge  of  inspection  to  the  Depart- 


38  MILITARY  industries:  historical  survey 

partment  of  Inspection,  and  the  delicate  instrument  factory 
newly  established  was  attached  thereto. 

The  above  is  a  rough  account  of  the  history  of  the  Japanese 
military  factories  (excepting  the  Senju  woolen  cloth  factory) 
for  the  period  running  from  the  Restoration  of  Meiji  to  the 
Sino-Japanese  War.  We  shall  next  see  how  the  manufacture 
of  arms,  ammunition  and  ignition  tools  was  developed  during 
the  same  period. 

A  rms 

The  history  of  the  military  factories  in  the  early  part  of 
the  era  of  Meiji  is  as  stated  above.  As  to  the  arms  industry 
carried  on  in  these  factories  during  that  time,  the  new  govern- 
ment of  Meiji  established  the  Arms  Office  and  worked  on  the 
plan  of  making  the  arms  uniform  by  collecting  under  its  con- 
trol those  arms-making  and  repairing  establishments  begun  by 
the  clans,  and  also  devoting  itself  to  the  concentration  of  arms 
and  machines.  It  was  only  the  repairing  and  remodeling  of 
small  arms,  and  the  manufacturing  of  harnesses,  accessories 
to  arms  and  simple  cleaning  implements  that  the  military 
factories  found  to  do  during  that  time,  and  consequently  the 
work  done  by  these  factories  made  little  advance.  Among 
the  small  arms  that  were  in  those  years  collected  at  the  Sekigu- 
chi  manufactory  administered  by  the  arsenal,  the  arms  which 
were  of  comparatively  new  types  and  preferred  by  clans  much 
more  than  any  others  were  the  Gewehr,  the  Minie  and  the 
Enfield.  The  match-lock  was  not  used  much,  as  its  ineffective- 
ness was  known  early  in  the  latter  days  of  the  Shogunate,  and, 
in  using  the  rifle  with  firing  mechanism,  the  clans  were  not 
slow  in  trying  to  get  ahead  of  one  another.  Though  the  above 
three  varieties  of  the  rifle  were  muzzle-loading,  they  were 
furnished  with  firing  mechanism.  As  these  muskets  mostly 
prevailed  before  the  Restoration,  not  a  few  clans  had  their 
workmen  imitate  them;  but,  the  art  not  being  yet  in  an  ad- 
vanced state,  there  were  only  a  few  who  had  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  manufacturing  these  muskets  of  new  types,  and  it  was 
especially  difficult  to  find  workmen  skilled  in  it  in  those  days 
of  the  Arms  Office  at  the  beginning  of  Meiji.     In  addition  to 


RESTORATION   TO    SINO-JAPANESE   WAR  39 

this,  the  government  of  that  time  was  devoting  itself  to  the 
concentration  and  arrangement  of  the  arms  and  factories  in 
clans  and  could  not  engage  in  any  other  work.  These  are  the 
reasons  why  the  manufacture  of  these  muskets  could  not  yet 
find  opportunity  to  develop.  This  is  true  not  only  for  the 
infantry  rifle,  but  also  with  the  cavalry  pistol  and  the  carbine 
that  were  then  already  introduced,  and  also  with  the  guns. 
As  to  the  guns,  most  of  them  that  were  owned  by  clans  toward 
the  end  of  the  Shogunate  were  smooth  barreled  and  of  do- 
mestic manufacture  of  dates  before  the  era  of  Kyoho.  But 
among  those  that  were  collected  from  clans  by  the  Meiji 
Government  there  were  also  not  a  few  guns  of  European 
manufacture  purchased  after  the  era  of  Tempo.  Besides 
these,  some  guns  of  new  types  were  also  manufactured  by  the 
Shogunate  and  some  powerful  clans  about  the  end  of  the  Sho- 
gunate ;  and  also  some  rifled  guns  were  made  at  those  domestic 
manufactories  after  their  importation  into  Japan  in  the  era 
of  Gwanji.  However,  the  guns  manufactured  in  Japan  were 
very  imperfect;  therefore  it  was  necessary  to  look  to  foreign 
teachers  for  help,  if  any  powerful  gun  serv^iceable  for  actual 
warfare  was  to  be  prepared.  And  here  again  as  the  Restora- 
tion of  Meiji  came,  then  the  government's  inability  to  divide 
its  time  with  any  business  other  than  the  one  that  was  pressing 
it  in  those  years  made  the  matter  the  more  difficult.  Thus 
in  the  age  of  the  Arms  Office  gun  making  in  this  country  was 
left  almost  at  a  standstill  and  naturally  guns  in  military  use 
then,  such  as  field,  mountain,  siege  and  fortress  guns,  were  far 
from  being  uniform. 

When  in. 3  Meiji  (1870),  the  arsenal  was  established,  the 
Enfield  was  adopted  as  the  infantry  musket,  and  next  the 
4-pound  rifled  gun  of  French  type  was  adopted  in  the  follow- 
ing year  to  organize  some  field  artillery  and  mountain  artillery 
battalions,  and  then  the  make  of  the  guns  was  made  uniform. 
Thus  the  preparations  for  arms  manufacture  by  the  military 
authorities  was  begun,  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  to  make  chiefly 
small  arms,  and  the  Osaka  Arsenal  chiefly  guns. 

In  3  Meiji  (1870),  Colonel  Margritte  and  others  were  en- 


40  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

gaged  as  military  teachers  from  France  and  were  put  in  charge 
of  the  reformation  of  the  military  regime  and  also  in  charge  of 
the  training  in  arms  making. 

In  June  of  the  same  year,  work  in  forging,  casting,  lathing 
and  pattern  making  was  started  at  the  arsenal  in  Osaka,  which 
was  at  first  chiefly  engaged  in  the  repairing  of  the  existing 
arms  and  in  preparation  for  making  guns,  vehicles,  shots, 
ignition  tools,  etc.  The  expenditures  of  the  arsenal  in  Osaka 
were  then  only  10,000  yen  per  month;  coal  for  fuel  was  pur- 
chased of  the  navy;  and  for  most  of  the  other  important  ma- 
terials they  had  to  rely  upon  foreign  countries.  How  defec- 
tive the  arrangement  was  at  the  time  may  be  easily 
conjectured   from   these   facts. 

In  October,  4  Meiji  (1871),  Philippe  Jauly,  a  Belgian  fore- 
man of  small  arms-making  artificers,  was  engaged  as  a  teacher 
of  small  arms  making  at  the  Tokyo  Arsenal,  and  his  services 
were  continued  until  April,  8  Meiji  (1875). 

In  February,  5  Meiji  (1872),  at  the  Osaka  ordnance  factory, 
for  the  first  time  a  4-pound  mountain  gun  of  French  style  was 
made,  the  copper  used  for  it  being  wholly  of  domestic  product. 

In  April,  5  Meiji  (1872),  an  artillery  captain  by  the  name 
of  Lebon  and  four  noncommissioned  officers  were  engaged  from 
France  as  teachers  of  industrial  education,  and  in  September 
Pironnet,  a  Belgian  mechanical  engineer,  was  engaged. 

In  April,  6  Meiji  (1873),  a  set  of  machines  needed  for  re- 
modeling Enfield  into  Allumette  was  purchased  for  $20,000. 

In  June  of  the  same  year,  4-pound  field  guns  of  French 
style  were  for  the  first  time  forged  at  the  Osaka  ordnance 
factory. 

In  July,  8  Meiji  (1875),  the  wood  working  mill  of  the  Tokyo 
Head  Arsenal  was  furnished  with  hydraulic  sawing  and  lath- 
ing machines,  and  also  steam  power  was  introduced  for  the 
big  saws  and  planes,  by  which  the  cutting  and  planing  works 
were  started. 

In  September,  Lemoine,  a  French  caster,  was  engaged,  who 
remained  in  charge  until  April,  10  Meiji  (1877). 

In  October,  the  casting  mill  of  the  Tokyo  Head  Arsenal  was 


RESTORATION   TO   SINO- JAPANESE  WAR  4I, 

furnished  with  smelting  furnaces,  fitted  up  with  machine  fans, 
and  steam  grinding  machines,  which  were  used  for  breaking  up 
earth  and  sand  for  molds,  were  fitted  up.  All  of  which  were  a 
great  saving  of  labor  in  comparison  with  the  method  in  use  up 
to  that  time,  and  made  quite  a  new  phase  in  the  industry. 

In  December,  a  French  foreman  of  smiths  by  the  name  of 
Bacquet  was  engaged,  who  was  in  service  until  April,  10  Meiji 

(1877). 

In  April,  9  Meiji  (1876),  the  Itabashi  powder  mill  began 
its  work  of  powder  making  (for  small  arms).  In  July  the 
small  arms  works  in  the  Tokyo  Head  Arsenal  manufactured 
rifles  for  the  first  time.  In  September,  a  riot  arose  in  the 
Yamaguchi  and  Kumamoto  prefectures,  and  the  repairing  of 
Snyders  and  Allumettes  was  hastily  made. 
.  In  February,  10  Meiji  (1877),  the  Satsuma  Rebellion  broke 
out,  and  the  Tokyo  Head  Arsenal  made  an  extraordinary  in- 
crease in  workmen  for  making  and  repairing  arms,  and  pushed 
the  work  day  and  night.  As  to  the  small  arms,  it  was  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  Enfields  that  were  hitherto  remodeled  into 
Allumettes  were  made  into  Snyders  during  the  war.  The 
Osaka  Branch  Arsenal  was  also  kept  very  busy  in  arms  making 
for  eight  months  until  the  rebellion  was  quelled  in  September, 
the  workmen  in  all  the  factories  continuing  night  w^ork  and 
devoting  themselves  to  their  duty  with  all  their  might  and 
main.  During  this  disturbance  the  Hagi  small  arms  factory 
was  put  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Osaka  Branch  Arsenal 
and  the  Allumettes  were  made  there.  All  this  work  for  the 
war,  in  which  enormous  quantities  of  arms  were  made  and 
repaired,  was  accomplished  so  remarkably  well  that  it  con- 
tributed a  great  deal  of  study  and  experience  to  the  military  in- 
dustry, putting  it  on  a  new  path  of  progress  and  development. 

In  December,  machinery  for  making  coast  and  siege  guns 
was  purchased  from  Europe. 

In  January,  11  Meiji  (1878),  drop  hammer  works  were 
started  in  the  musket  works.  In  this  year,  the  Satsuma 
Rebellion  came  to  an  end,  and  the  damaged  arms  were  repaired 
and  the  hand  guns  used  in  the  w^ar  were  changed  to  others. 


42  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

In  October  of  the  same  year,  selected  pieces  from  among  a 
lot  of  the  old  Enfields  were  remodeled  into  Snyders,  The 
wood  for  the  stock  of  the  military  rifle,  of  which  there  had  been 
no  particular  kind  fixed,  was,  as  the  consequence  of  study, 
decided  for  the  future  to  be  beech,  walnut  also  being  used. 
Also  the  lance  for  the  cavalry  was  up  to  this  time  of  no  fixed 
make ;  therefore  a  system  was  arranged  by  which  the  old  style 
lances  were  gradually  changed  to  new  style  ones.  In  a  word, 
in  that  year  new  arms  were  made  or  the  old  ones  repaired  ac- 
cording to  the  various  improvements  resulting  from  the  ex- 
perience obtained  in  the  Satsuma  Rebellion. 

In  March,  13  Meiji  (1880),  the  Murata  rifle  made  by  In- 
fantry Major  Murata  Tsuneyoshi  from  his  own  design  was 
adopted  as  the  military  rifle  of  Japan.  The  Murata  rifle, 
\  which  was  a  great  invention  in  the  Japanese  military  industry, 
\  was  not  only  the  first  small  arms  made  in  the  new  style  from  a 
Vjapanese  design,  but  it  was  also  the  origin  of  all  the  domestic 
ri^es  made  thereafter.  In  the  same  month  work  was  started 
on  remodeling  Chassepot  rifles  into  Muratas. 

In  February,  15  Meiji  (1882),  the  manufacturing  work  of 
the  ordnance  factory  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal  was  started.  In 
the  same  month,  a  bronze  howitzer  of  15  cm.,  the  first  breech- 
loading  gun  ever  made  in  Japan,  was  cast. 

In  September,  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal  the  building  of  a  duodec- 
agonal  reverberatory  furnace  was  started,  after  the  comple- 
tion of  which  work  was  commenced  in  the  making  of  the  steel 
bronze  gun  by  Japanese  students  who  had  studied  abroad  and 
had  experience  in  making  it  with  the  furnace.  Thus  great 
progress  in  gun  making  took  place  in  Japan. 

In  January,  16  Meiji  (1883),  the  pattern  of  the  cavalry 
rifle  was  fixed.  Thanks  to  the  well  arranged  system  of  works 
in  every  one  of  its  factories  and  the  great  progress  made  in  the 
skill  of  its  engineers  and  workmen  since  July  of  the  previous 
year,  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  succeeded  in  that  year  in  remodeling 
over  8,000  Chassepots,  and  making  over  7,000  Murata  rifles. 

In  January  of  the  same  year,  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  barrels 
for  the  7  cm.  steel  bronze  mountain  guns  were  made  and  in 


RESTORATION   TO    SINO-JAPANESE   WAR  43 

February  carriage  for  the  same;  in  April,  the  manufacture  of 
steel  bronze  field  guns  and  12  cm.  steel  bronze  cannons  was 
started,  also  in  the  same  arsenal. 

The  manufacture  of  small  arms  in  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  in  1 7 
Meiji  (1884)  increased  in  comparison  with  the  former  year,  the 
producing  power  of  rifles  having  now  reached  30,000  per  year. 
That  was  due  to  the  new  arrangement  of  rifling  the  barrel 
in  the  arsenal  and  to  its  various  machines  being  put  in  good 
order. 

In  April,  17  Meiji  (1884),  Italian  Artillery  Major  Pompeio 
Grillo  was  engaged  as  a  teacher  in  gun  making. 

In  June,  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal  the  trial  making  of  19  cm. 
and  24  cm.  long  cannons  and  28  cm.  howitzers  was  started. 

In  September,  Antonio  Fornelis,  an  Italian  engineer  and 
Giacomo  Hisso,  an  assistant  engineer,  were  engaged. 

In  October,  a  steel  bronze  gun  press,  newly  arrived  from 
Europe,  was  fixed  in  its  place. 

In  18  Meiji  (1885),  some  improvements  were  made  in  the  tail 
body,  bayonet,  etc.,  of  the  Murata  rifle,  and  the  new  rifle  was 
named  the  Murata  rifle  of  the  i8th  year  style.  The  amount 
of  arms  made  in  that  financial  year  was  larger  than  in  the  year 
)revious''onaccount""bf  the  annually  expanding  armament,"^ 
and  the  Murata  rifles  niade  in  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  exceeded 
28,700.  In  addition  to  tfiis,  the  gradual  improvement  of  the 
method  of  making  arn>»  and  the  skill  of  the  officers,  engineers 
atrd-  workmerrTnaHe  the  progress  of  the  work  remarkably 
rapid,  and  consequently  increased  the  amount  of  work  done 
in  a  fixed  number  of  hours  in  the  day,  while  the  defects  and 
wastes  in  manufacture  were  lessened  and  naturally  the  rate 
of  expenditure  was  reduced,  resulting  in  the  diminished  cost 
of  manufacture. 

In  January  19  cm.  frame  gun-carriage  cannons,  in  August 
28  cm.  frame  gun-carriage  howitzers  and  in  December  24  cm. 
frame  gun-carriage  mortars,  all  of  cast  iron,  were  cast  for  the 
first  time  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal. 

In  the  same  arsenal,  in  February,  19  Meiji  (1886),  24  cm. 
frame  gun-carriage  cannons  of  cast  iron,  in  May  15  cm.  steel 


44  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

bronze  cannons  and  mortars,  and  in  July  24  cm.  steel  bronze 
mortars  were  cast,  all  for  the  first  time. 

In  October,  magazine  rifles  were  manufactured  and  their 
testing  was  done  in  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  January,  20  Meiji  (1887),  19  cm.  and  24  cm.  cannons, 
and  the  carriages  and  stocks  of  the  28  cm.  howitzers  were 
made  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal. 

.In  21  Meiji  (1888),  the  magazine  rifle  which  had  been  in 
course  of  study  was  tested  with  satisfactory  results,  giving  op- 
portunity to  the  military  rifle  to  make  further  advance,  and 
thereupon  the  manufacture  of  the  Murata  simple  rifle  for 
military  use  was  discontinued. 

In  April,  Italian  Artillery  Major  Pompeio  GrlUo,  an  instruc- 
tor in  the  employment  of  Japan,  and  Antonio  Fornelis,  an 
engineer  from  the  same  country,  were  released  from  their 
offices  owing  to  the  termination  of  their  contracts,  and 
Alexandro  Quaratezy,  an  artillery  major  of  the  same  country, 
came  as  their  successor. 

In  that  year  the  Osaka  Arsenal  devoted  itself  to  the  making 
of  coast  guns  and  their  accessories,  and  arranged  the  machin- 
ery for  making  more  coast  gun  carriages,  so  that  remarkable 
progress  was  effected  in  these  works. 

In  March,  22  Meiji  (1887),  the  magazine  rifle  which  was  in 
the  course  of  trial  making  was  adopted  as  the  military  rifle 
and  called  the  Murata  magazine  rifle,  and  from  that  time  the 
rifle  factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  discontinued  making  the 
Murata  simple  rifle  and  was  exclusively  engaged  in  making  the 
Murata  magazine  rifle.  In  the  same  year,  the  gun  repairing 
works  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  were  engaged  in  manufacturing 
machinery  for  powder  making  and  a  large  quantity  of  harness, 
and  were  kept  very  busy  at  that  work. 

In  May,  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal  the  12  cm.  steel  bronze  can- 
non gun  carriage  was  made  for  the  first  time.  In  the  same 
year,  this  arsenal  manufactured  a  large  number  of  coast  guns 
for  use  in  the  coast  batteries  which  had  been  constructed  one 
after  another;  this  brought  on  a  great  development  in  gun 
making  work.     The  most  remarkable  development  made  was 


RESTORATION    TO    SINO-JAPANESE   WAR  45 

the  manufacture  of  the  center  pivots  gun  carriage  for  24  cm. 
cannon  entirely  of  cast  iron,  when  up  to  that  time  only  frame 
gun  carriages  were  made.  In  March,  23  Meiji  (1890),  the 
Osaka  Arsenal  cast  a  19  cm.  short  firing  gun  for  the  first  time. 
In  May,  by  altering  the  main  part  of  the  24  cm.  cannon,  a 
more  powerful  one  was  manufactured  at  the  same  arsenal. 

According  to  the  investigations  made  in  November  of  the 
same  year,  the  guns  of  new  models  completed  since  the  be- 
ginning of  manufacturing  were  as  follows,  from  which  we  can 
readily  see  what  progress  was  then  being  made  in  this  work: 

Coast  guns  of  every  kind 114 

Gun  carriages  for  the  above 76 

Siege  guns  and  garrison  guns,  together  with  their  gun  carriages .  .  2 

7  cm.  mountain  guns 251 

Gun  carriages  for  the  above 277 

7  cm.  field  guns 255 

Gun  carriages  for  the  above 278 

In  July,  24  Meiji  (1891),  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal  24  cm.  and 
28  cm.  short  firing  guns  were  cast  for  the  first  time. 

In  January,  25  Meiji  (1892),  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  made  1,000 
small  arms  and  100  sabers  for  the  Military  Department  of  the 
City  of  Melbourne,  Australia,  at  its  request,  which  was  the 
beginning  in  Japan  of  the  manufacture  of  articles  made  on 
commission  for  a  foreign  government. 

In  March,  the  Osaka  Arsenal  cast  9  cm.  cannons  and  quick 
firing  guns  of  the  same  caliber,  actually  showing  rapid  progress 
in  gun  making  in  Japan'. 

In  August,  the  arsenal  engaged  an  Italian  artillery  major  by 
the  name  of  Scipione  Bracialini,  under  whom  it  made  designs 
for  the  coast  range  finder,  laying  gear,  field  glass  and  models, 
and  manufactured  said  articles. 

In  July,  26  Meiji  (1893),  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  in  compliance 
with  the  request  of  the  governor  of  Manila,  a  Portuguese 
colony,  made  some  7  cm.  mountain  guns,  which  were  the  first 
guns  made  to  order  for  any  foreign  country. 

In  the  same  year,  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  made  a  revolver  called 
the  revolver  of  the  26th  year  model,  on  which  much  study  and 
trial  making  had  been  expended. 

As  in  27  Meiji  (1894)  matters  between  China  and  Japan  had 


46  MILITARY  industries:  historical  survey 

been  approaching  a  crisis,  the  business  of  the  arsenal  grew 
active,  with  an  increase  of  materials  and  workmen,  and  of 
factories  and  machinery ;  and  when  at  last  the  war  commenced 
in  June  there  ensued  a  great  expansion  of  the  military  in- 
dustry. 

Ammunition  and  Ignition  Tools 

The  beginning  of  the  era  of  Meiji,  in  which  the  Arms  Office 
was  in  control,  was,  as  has  been  said  in  the  section  under 
"Arms,"  an  age  of  construction  in  the  history  of  the  military 
industry;  and  the  works  carried  on  by  the  Arms  Office  in  the 
making  of  ammunition  and  ignition  tools  in  that  period  were 
only  those  of  the  old  powder  mills  or  high  explosive  mills 
which  were  passed  over  from  the  Shogunate  and  clans;  the 
manufacture  of  supplies  was  mainly  of  ammunition  used  for 
the  old  rifle  and  was  done  on  a  small  scale,  as  all  the  arrange- 
ments were  defective.  But  the  industry  began  to  develop 
gradually  when  in  3  Meiji  (1870)  an  arsenal  was  established 
and  next  the  pattern  of  the  arms  for  military  use  was  fixed. 
In  the  following  pages  will  be  described  the  development  of 
the  industry  after  the  establishment  of  the  arsenal.  At  the 
time  of  the  establishment  of  the  arsenal  in  Tokyo  in  February, 
3  Meiji  (1870),  the  bullets  for  the  various  kinds  of  rifle  were 
made  only  as  needed,  but  after  the  adoption  of  the  Enfield 
in  the  same  year  as  the  regulation  military  rifle,  bullets  for 
the  same  rifle  were  chiefly  made  and  those  for  others  were 
made  only  as  supplementary.  The  bullet  adopted  at  that 
time  was  the  cast  oval  bullet  of  lead. 

In  the  same  month  the  arsenal  in  Osaka  was  established. 
It  commenced  its  work  in  June,  and  in  the  intercalary  tenth 
month  started  its  stuffing  of  gun  powder  and  made  frictional 
percussion  caps,  cartridges  for  the  Chassepot,  cartridges  for 
maneuvers,  fire  arrows,  etc.,  which  was  the  first  stuffing  of 
gun  powder  done  in  the  arsenal. 

In  November,  5  Meiji  (1872),  the  ordnance  factory  in 
Osaka  made  for  the  first  time  the  common  shell  and  shrapnel 
for  the  four-pound  mountain  gun  of  French  type.     The  pig 


RESTORATION   TO    SINO-JAPANESE   WAR  47 

iron  and  zinc  plate  used  for  them  were  entirely  foreign.  Shells 
used  for  guns  of  those  days  were  generally  those  that  were 
studded. 

In  February,  7  Meiji  (1874),  the  ordnance  factory  made  the 
common  shell  for  the  12  cm.  mortar,  in  x^ugust  the  same  for 
the  13  cm.  mortar  and  in  December  the  Desmarets  fuse  for 
the  four-pound  mountain  gun  of  French  type,  all  for  the  first 
time. 

In  September,  8  Meiji  (1875),  the  machine  for  making  the 
Snyder  shell  arrived  at  the  Tokyo  Head  Arsenal  from  England, 
so  that  the  arsenal  made  about  50,000  of  the  same  shell  daily. 

In  October,  the  same  arsenal  engaged  Partray,  a  French 
foreman,  as  teacher  in  stuffing  gun  powder. 

In  April,  9  Meiji  (1876),  the  manufacture  of  the  rifle  powder 
was  commenced  at  the  Itabashi  powder  mill. 

In  September,  on  account  of  the  riots  in  the  prefectures  of 
Yamaguchi  and  Kumamoto,  every  powder  mill  was  hastily  put 
to  the  making  of  ammunition  for  the  Snyder  and  Allumette, 
and  in  a  few  days'  time  a  large  amount  was  manufactured. 

In  February,  10  Meiji  (1877),  as  the  Satsuma  Rebellion 
broke  out  and  the  demand  for  ammunition  for  the  Snyder  had 
greatly  increased,  the  powder  mills  of  both  the  Tokyo  Head 
Arsenal  and  Osaka  Branch  Arsenal  increased  their  machinery; 
and  besides,  in  Tokyo,  a  temporary  high  explosive  mill  was  set 
up,  by  which  a  large  amount  of  bullets  and  fire  arrows  for  mili- 
tary use  was  made ;  while  in  the  Osaka  Branch  Arsenal  many 
a  shell  for  the  field  and  mountain  guns  was  manufactured. 
As  the  manufacture  of  ammunition  in  this  war  needed  to  be 
done  in  great  haste,  it  was  carried  on  day  and  night,  with  the 
result  that  it  amounted  to  a  great  quantity  and  consequent 
gave  great  advantage  to  the  industry. 

In  April,  10  Meiji  (1877),  the  Itabashi  powder  mill  made  for 
the  first  time  the  big  grain  powder  (for  the  gun),  the  powder 
No.  I  (for  the  gun),  No.  2  (for  the  rifle),  No.  3  (for  the  rifle) 
and  the  powder  for  the  fuses. 

In  October,  11  Meiji  (1878),  the  method  was  fixed  by  which 
paper  was  to  be  pasted  over  with  gum-lac  within  and  without 


\ 

\ 


48  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

the  small  arms  cartridge  case;  the  shrapnel  shell  for  the  four- 
pound  gun,  which  was  previously  made  partly  of  wrought 
iron,  was  to  be  made  in  future  of  cast  iron  only.  Besides, 
many  improvements  were  made  in  the  manufacture  of  am- 
munition and  ignition  tools,  based  upon  the  experience  ob- 
tained from  the  Satsuma  Rebellion. 

In  March,  13  Meiji  (1880),  a  German  by  the  name  of  Heer 
was  engaged  to  give  instruction  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
cartridge  case  of  the  rifle. 

In  July,  14  Meiji  (1881),  in  the  ammunition  factory  of  the 
Tokyo  Arsenal  cartridges  of  the  Murata  magazine  rifle  were 
made  on  trial ;  in  October  the  rolling  work  of  bronze  was  begun 
by  which  the  manufactures  of  the  cartridge  case  and  bronze 
for  material  (for  making  guns,  etc.)  was  commenced,  and  in 
December,  the  brass  plate  was  cast  for  the  first  time. 

In  January,  15  Meiji  (1882),  the  pattern  was  fixed  for  the 
cartridge  of  the  Murata  rifle  ^nd  in  April  its  manufacture  was 
begun  in  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  February  of  the  same  year,  the  Osaka  Arsenal  manufac- 
tured the  common  shell  and  shrapnel  shell,  both  of  a  new  pat- 
tern, for  the  7  cm.  steel  bronze  field  and  mountain  gun.  At 
that  time  the  muzzle-loading  rifle  was  changed  to  the  breech- 
loading,  and  pressed  shot  was  adopted  as  the  pattern,  which 
was  a  mantled  shot  made  after  the  Krupp's,  the  mantle  being 
of  an  alloy  of  lead  and  zinc. 

In  16  Meiji  (1883),  considerable  rearrangement  in  the  work 
of  cartridge  making  was  made,  and  this,  together  with  the 
fact  that  the  employes  were  experienced  in  the  work,  brought 
up  the  amount  of  cartridges  and  blank  cartridges  of  the 
Murata  rifle  manufactured  to  an  enormous  quantity. 

In  February,  16  Meiji  (1883),  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal  the 
time  fuse  and  percussion  for  the  7  cm.  steel  bronze  mountain 
guns  were  made;  the  former  had  a  combustion  range  of  13 
seconds  and  were  the  first  compound  fuses  ever  made  in  Japan. 
In  April,  the  common  shell  and  shrapnel  for  the  12  cm. 
cannon  were  made  for  the  first  time. 

In  October,  17  Meiji  (1884),  ^^  annealing  furnace  for  the 


RESTORATION   TO   SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  49 

cartridge  case  to  be  used  In  the  ammunition  factory  was 
devised,  which  introduced  the  use  of  gas  instead  of  the  old 
charcoal. 

In  March,  18  Meiji  (1885),  the  black  powder  for  mines  was 
made  for  the  first  time  at  the  Iwabana  powder  mill.  This 
year,  owing  to  the  ever-progressing  skill  in  the  work  in  the 
ammunition  factory,  the  experience  in  the  casting  and  rolling 
of  bronze  as  material  for  the  cartridge  case,  and  various  im- 
provements gradually  made  in  all  connections,  the  waste  of 
the  cartridge  case  in  the  manufacture  greatly  diminished,  and 
the  production  was  so  rapidly  increased  that  it  amounted  in 
the  case  of  the  cartridge  case  for  the  Murata  rifle  to-above 
4,400,000,  and  in  the  case  of  the  stuffing  of  cartridges  ana\^ 
blank  cartridges  for  the  same  rifle  to  aboV^e  4,040,000;  also 
the  percussion  cap  was  hastily  made  on  accbuiit_of  the  lar^ 
demand  of  the  garrisons.  Further,  an  increase  was  made 
over  the  previous  year  in  the  manufacture  of  the  thin  cartridge 
case,  friction  tube,  cartridge  bag  of  various  guns,  and  the 
fuses  of  every  kind,  at  the  high  explosive  factory  and  in  that 
of  powder  of  every  kind,  the  refining  of  niter  and  sulphur,  and 
the  making  of  charcoal,  at  the  Itabashi  powder  mill.  In  the 
same  year,  the  gun  repairing  mill  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  made 
a  satisfactory  trial  in  casting  the  metal  for  the  shrapnel  for 
the  7^  cm.  Krupp  gun  by  a  combination  of  pig  iron  of  domestic 
production.  Besides,  in  the  Itabashi  powder  mill,  a  powder 
adapted  to  the  new  7  cm.  field  and  mountain  guns  was  made. 

In  August,  18  Meiji  (1885),  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal  the  chilled- 
iron  shell  for  the  28  cm.  cast-iron  howitzer  with  band,  and 
common  shell  and  chilled -iron  shell  for  29  cm.  cast-iron  cannon 
with  band  were  made  for  the  first  time. 

In  this  year,  the  use  of  the  old  mantled  shells  was  discon- 
tinued, for  they  were  imperfectly  pressed  and  liable  to  explode, 
and  the  copper  driving  band  was  adopted  in  their  place. 

In  October,  19  Meiji  (1886),  in  the  Iwabana  powder  mill 
the  black  powder  for  field  and  mountain  guns  was  made  for  the 
first  time. 

In  January,  20  Meiji  (1887),  a  shell-lathing  shop  was  started 


50  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

in  the  Osaka  Arsenal  and  the  work  in  shell  lathing  therein  was 
done  much  more  speedily.  In  July,  in  the  same  arsenal,  base 
fuses  for  the  19  cm.,  24  cm.  and  28  cm.  guns  were  made  for 
the  first  time. 

In  21  Meiji  (1888),  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  the  machines  for 
making  shells  for  the  coast  guns  and  especially  those  for  mak- 
ing fuses  and  driving  bands  were  increased  and  so  arranged 
that  great  progress  was  made  in  this  work. 

In  22  Meiji  (1889),  in  the  ammunition  factory  and  the  high 
explosive  factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal,  the  making  of  the 
ammunition  for  the  Murata  magazine  rifle  and  ignition  tools 
was  begun.  This  year  the  high  explosive  factory  began  to  try 
the  making  of  smokeless  powder. 

In  March,  23  Meiji  (1890),  four  Korean  students  were  sent 
to  this  country  to  study  the  art  of  the  firing  ordnance  maker 
and  entered  the  Tokyo  Arsenal.  They  were  the  first  foreign 
students  sent  there  for  such  a  purpose. 

In  August,  at  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  a  comparative  test  was 
made  of  the  shells  made  of  the  Italian  Gregorini  cast  iron  and 
the  Japanese  cast  iron  of  Kamaishi.  The  result  clearly 
showed  no  difference  in  all  qualities  between  the  two  shells, 
the  Kamaishi  iron  having  been  proved  to  be  good  enough  as  a 
material  for  the  shells. 

According  to  the  investigations  made  in  November  of  the 
same  year,  the  number  of  shells  made  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal 
since  the  beginning  of  the  manufacture  of  shells  for  the  guns  of 
the  new  pattern  was  as  follows : 

Shells  for  the  various  coast  guns 2,248 

Shells  for  siege  guns  and  garrison  guns 875 

Shells  of  all  kinds  for  7  cm.  field  and  mountain  guns 370i756 

Fuses  of  all  kinds 300,238 

In  September,  25  Meiji  (1892),  in  the  Tokyo  Arsenal,  the 
cartridges  and  blank  cartridges  for  the  Smith  &  Wesson  re- 
volver were  made  for  the  first  time. 

In  November,  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  the  30-second  com- 
pound fuse  for  the  12  cm.  cannon  was  made  for  the  first  time. 
The  first  compound  fuse  made  in  Japan  was  that  for  the  7  c-.m. 


RESTORATION  TO   SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  5 1 

gun,  having  a  combustion  range  of  13  seconds;  the  second 
that  of  30  Seconds,  which  followed  the  Italian  system, 
with  some  amendments,  and  adopted  as  the  fuse  for  guns  of 
medium  caliber;  and  the  third  that  of  50  seconds,  which  was 
made  by  taking  the  30-second  fuse  as  its  base  and  increasing 
the  length  of  the  fire  channel  to  50  seconds  and  weakening  the 
resistance  of  the  suspender  of  the  detonator  in  time  fuse  so  as 
to  be  acted  upon  by  using  even  less  powder  than  ever  for  the 
cartridge  of  the  mortar. 

In  January,  26  Meiji  (1893),  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  the 
shrapnels  for  the  24  cm.  cannon  and  for  mortar  were  made  for 
the  first  time. 

In  April  of  the  same  year,  the  Meguro  powder  mill  attached 
to  the  Navy  Department  was  put  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Tokyo  Arsenal,  and  thereafter  the  charge  of  making  a  part  of 
the  powder  used  by  the  navy  was  taken  by  the  arsenal.  In 
that  month  the  making  of  cartridges  for  the  Murata  magazine 
rifle  was  started.  In  July  of  the  same  year  the  making  of  am- 
munition for  the  7  cm.  mountain  gun  was  started  in  compli- 
ance with  the  request  of  the  governor  of  Manila,  a  Portuguese 
colony. 

In  May,  27  Meiji  (1894),  the  Osaka  Arsenal  cast  the  chilled- 
iron  shell  for  the  27  cm.  cannon.  Just  then  the  Sino-Japanese 
War  was  about  to  commence,  and  both  the  Tokyo  and  Osaka 
Arsenals  were  becoming  busy,  the  making  of  ammunition  and 
ignition  tools  especially  showing  the  highest  activity. 

In  May  of  the  same  year,  the  Itabashi  powder  mill  started 
the  making  of  niter  and  gun  cotton. 

In  August  of  the  same  year,  the  use  of  common  powder  for 
the  shell  burster  was  discontinued,  and  in  its  place  the  yellow 
powder  made  with  improvement  after  study  since  20  Meiji 
(1887)  was  adopted. 

Industries  of  the  Navy 

The  Japanese  naval  industry  before  the  Restoration  of 
Meiji  was,  as  roughly  described  in  the  introduction,  only  in  its 
initial  stage.     All  necessary  arrangements  were  far  from  being 


52  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

perfect  In  those  days,  when  domestic  troubles  and  external 
annoyances  followed  one  another  and  threw  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  the  unification  and  progress  of  the  industry,  making  the 
doings  of  the  Shogunate  and  clans  toward  It  very  diverse. 
The  factories  administered  by  the  Shogunate  at  the  time  of 
the  Restoration  were  the  Nagasaki  Iron  Works,  the  Yokosuka 
Naval  Arsenal,  the,  Uraga  Dockyard,  the  Yokohama  Factory, 
etc.;  and  the  principal  factories  run  by  clans  were  the  Ishika- 
wa-JIma  Dockyard,  the  Hyogo  Iron  Works,  the  Kagoshlma 
Dockyard,  etc.  All  these  were  started  to  build  and  repair 
warships  and  make  guns  for  them.  But  of  all  the  ships  owned 
by  the  Shogunate  and  clans  since  the  new  establishment  of  the 
Japanese  Navy  (which  were  20  warships  and  95  ships  for 
military  use,  115  in  all),  the  greater  part  was  purchased  from 
foreign  countries  and  only  ten  or  so  were  built  at  domestic 
yards.  Thus,  though  the  naval  Industry  before  the  Restora- 
tion served  for  laying  the  foundation  for  Its  future  work  and 
progress.  It  did  no  remarkable  work  In  any  direct  manner. 
And  when  the  war  of  the  Restoration  came,  people  were 
absorbed  in  warlike  preparations,  and  such  an  afifalr  as  ship- 
building was  entirely  forgotten,  so  that  the  Industry  was 
brought  to  a  sudden  standstill.  Consequently  the  work  done 
In  the  four  years  between  the  Restoration  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Navy  Department,  that  is,  in  the  four  years  under 
the  administration  of  the  Office  of  Military  Affairs  (from  I 
Meiji,  or  1868,  to  July  of  the  next  year)  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Military  and  Navy  Department  (from  July  of  2 
Meiji,  or  1869,  to  February  of  5  Meiji,  or  1872)  were  Insignifi- 
cant. The  only  things  done  in  the  interval  were  that  the 
name  of  the  Ishlkawa-Jima  Dockyard  was  altered  In  July  of  4 
Meiji  (1871)  to  Factory  of  the  Shipbuilding  Bureau,  and  later 
to  Ship  Administrative  Bureau  (Shusenryo) ;  Hida-Hamagoro, 
who  had  just  returned  from  abroad,  where  he  went  to  Inspect 
the  condition  of  the  shipbuilding  Industry  some  years  before, 
was  appointed  chief  of  the  bureau;  In  the  yard  some  petty 
repairs  (not  fundamental  repairing)  of  ships  and  the  making 
of  some  small  ships  and  tools  were  done;  and  further  In  the 


RESTORATION  TO   SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  53 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal,  the  Uraga  Dockyard,  etc.,  work 
was  continued  as  before.  Thus  in  those  periods  there  were 
no  industrial  achievements  that  should  be  specially  reported. 
Therefore  here  will  be  mentioned  only  those  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Navy  Department  in  5  Meiji  (1872).  To 
make  the  development  of  the  naval  industry  clearly  under- 
stood, it  would  be  proper  to  treat  the  history  of  the  expansion 
and  construction  of  the  factories  separately  from  that  of  the 
development  of  the  art  of  making  ships  and  arms.  For  this 
reason  an  outline  of  that  part  of  the  history  of  the  Japanese 
naval  factories  which  runs  from  the  establishment  of  the  Navy 
Department  to  the  Sino-Japanese  War  will  be  given  before 
going  on  to  describe  the  development  of  the  shipbuilding 
industry. 

History  of  the  Shipbuilding  Factories 

(I)  The  Ishikawa-Jima  Ship  Administrative  Bureau. — In 
5  Meiji  (1872)  the  Military  and  Navy  Department  was  closed 
and  the  Navy  Department  was  established,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence the  Ishikawa-Jima  Ship  Administrative  Bureau  was 
brought  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Navy  Department;  but 
as  afterwards,  when  the  plan  of  the  naval  enlargement  was 
completed,  it  was  found  that  the  working  capacity  of  the  bu- 
reau was  insufficient  for  the  required  service,  its  work  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  charge  of  the  new  yard  in  Yokosuka,  and  there 
being  no  longer  any  necessity  for  its  existence  as  an  independ- 
ent establishment,  in  9  Meiji  (1876)  it  was  combined  with  the 
Tsukiji  Arms  Bureau  with  its  machinery  and  buildings,  and 
then  the  work  of  the  government  in  Ishikawa-Jima  entirely 
ceased. 

(II)  The  Yokohama  Factory. — It  was  established  by  the 
Shogunate  in  i  Keio  (1865),  was  afterwards  put  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Industrial  Department  of  the  Meiji  Govern- 
ment, and  in  October  of  5  Meiji  (1872)  was  brought  under  that 
of  the  Navy  Department  together  with  the  Yokosuka  Dock- 
yard and  attached  to  the  Ship  Administrative  Bureau;  but 
soon  the  jurisdiction  was  once  more  changed, and  in  December 


5^  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

of  the  next  year  the  factory  was  attached  to  the  Finance 
Department. 

(III)  The  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal. — In  October,  5  Meiji 
(1872),  the  Yokosuka  Dockyard,  as  the  arsenal  was  called  orig- 
inally, was  brought  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Navy  De- 
partment from  that  of  the  Industrial  Department  and  attached 
to  the  Ship  Administrative  Bureau.  Dai  jo  (a  civil  officer  in 
the  Navy,  corresponding  to  captain  in  rank)  Akamatsu- 
Noriyoshi  was  the  chief  of  the  same  dockyard,  and  the  chief 
architect.  Veiny,  took,  as  before,  charge  of  all  business  re- 
lating to  naval  architecture  at  the  'head  of  the  French  em- 
ployes. The  Frenchmen  employed  were  gradually  superseded 
by  Japanese  until  in  10  Meiji  (1877),  the  last  of  them  having 
been  dismissed,  there  were  no  foreigners  remaining  in  the 
service. 

In  May,  22  Meiji  (1889),  the  jurisdiction  of  the  dockyard 
was  changed,  and  it  was  newly  named  the  Shipbuilding  Divi- 
sion as  a  part  of  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Station,  consisting  of  the 
Designing  Section  and  the  Working  Section. 

(IV)  The  Onohama  Dockyard  (Branch  of  the  Shipbuild- 
ing Division  of  the  Kure  Naval  Station). — This  was  begun  as  a 
private  yard  by  an  Englishman  named  Kirby.  In  16  Meiji 
(1883)  the  Navy  Department  ordered  from  it  the  warship 
Yamato  to  encourage  domestic  shipbuilding.  Upon  the  lay- 
ing of  her  keel,  the  department  paid  a  part  of  the  contract 
price  in  advance,  on  the  security  of  the  factory  buildings  and 
machinery  therein  contained.  But  as  unfortunately  Kirby 
died  before  he  finished  the  work,  the  government  doubted  the 
possibility  of  the  completion  of  the  Yamato  and  bought  up 
the  yard  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  contract.  In 
January  of  17  Meiji  (1884)  the  yard  was  named  the  Onohama 
Dockyard  and  put  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Ship  Admin- 
istrative Bureau.  The  Kure  Naval  Station  having  been 
opened  in  July,  22  Meiji  (1889),  the  name  of  the  dockyard  was 
altered  in  March  of  the  next  year  to  the  Onohama  Branch  Yard 

f  the  Shipbuilding  Division  of  the  Kure  Naval  Station,  and 
further  in  May,  26  Meiji  (1893),  to  Branch  of  the  Shipbuild- 


-      RESTORATION   TO   SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  55 

ing  Division  of  the  Kure  Naval  Station.  In  June,  28  Meiji 
(1895),  all  the  buildings,  machinery,  tools  and  other  properties 
of  the  branch  were  transferred  to  the  Kure  Shipbuilding 
Division;  which  ended  the  naval  shipbuilding  work  at 
Onohama. 

Six  warships  and  twelve  torpedo  boats  were  built  at  the 
yard  after  it  was  placed  under  the  control  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

(V)  The  Kure  Naval  Arsenal. — The  construction  of  the 
Kure  Naval  Arsenal  was  one  of  the  works  of  the  first  expan- 
sion of  the  navy.  In  22  Meiji  (1889)  the  Kure  Naval  Station 
was  opened  and  in  the  same  year  the  construction  of  the  Ship- 
building Division  was  started.  In  24  Meiji  (1891)  the  main 
factories  were  almost  finished  and  in  28  Meiji  (1895)  the  con- 
struction was  completed.  While  the  construction  work  was 
going  on,  ships  were  built  by  the  factories  as  rapidly  as  they 
w^ere  completed  and  ready  for  business. 

(VI)  The  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal. — Like  the  Kure  Arsenal 
it  was  constructed  as  a  work  of  the  first  expansion  of  the  navy. 
In  July,  22  Meiji  (1889),  the  Sasebo  Naval  Station  was  opened. 
The  construction  of  the  Shipbuilding  Division  was  started  in 
23  Meiji  (1890)  and  completed  in  30  Meiji  (1897).  While  the 
construction  was  in  progress,  some  shipbuilding  was  done  at 
the  factories  as  rapidly  as  they  were  completed.  The  general 
structure  of  the  arsenal  was  not  large,  as  it  was  mainly  for  re- 
pairing ships. 

The  above  is  an  outline  of  the  history  of  the  naval  factories 
that  existed  between  the  establishment  of  the  Naval  Depart- 
ment and  the  Sino-Japanese  War.  In  the  following  article  the 
development  of  warship  building  will  be  roughly  described. 

Warships 

When,  in  February,  5  Meiji  (1872),  the  Navy  Department 
was  established,  Japan  had  thirteen  warships  and  luui  ■It 
ports,  seventeen  in  all,  with  a  total  tonnage  of  oni^i3,832; 
these  only  one,  viz.,  the  Ryujo  exceeded  2,000  tonsTaTT^nve, 
viz.,  the  Azuma,  the  Tsukuba,  the  Fujiyama,  the  Kasuga  and 


56  MILITARY  industries:  historical   survey 

the  Nisshin  exceeded  i,ooo  tons.  They  were  made  of  wood, 
except  the  armored  Ryujo  and  Azuma,  and  the  Mo  shun,  a 
composite  ship.  Both  the  Seiki,  a  second-class  gunboat  of  a 
displacement  of  897  tons,  and  the  Ishikawa,  a  training  sailing 
vessel  of  253  tons,  were  wooden.  The  keel  of  the  former  boat 
•was  laid  in  November, 6  Meiji  (1873), at  the  Yokosuka Arsenal, 
:and  she  was  completed  on  June  21,  9  Meiji  (1876),  and  the 
latter  had  her  keel  laid  in  August,  7  Meiji  (1874),  ^t  the  Ishi- 
kawa-Jima  Dockyard,  and  was  completed  on  July  2,  9  Meiji 
( 1 876) .  But  as  Japan  is  entirely  surrounded  by  sea  and  knew 
that  she  could  not  rely  on  such  ships  in  the  defense  of  her 
coast,  as  early  as  the  establishment  of  the  Navy  Department 
she  made  a  plan  to  build  warships  of  new  models.  According 
to  the  plan,  in  October,  5  Meiji  (1872),  the  Yokosuka  Dock- 
yard that  had  belonged  to  the  Department  of  Industry  was 
attached  to  the  Ship  Administration  Bureau  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  Navy  Department,  and  thereby  being  enlarged 
was  put  to  the  service  of  building  some  new  warships.  There 
the  Jingei,  a  wooden  Imperial  yacht  of  a  displacement  of 
1,464  tons  was  started  in  September,  6  Meiji  (1873) ;  then  the 
above  mentioned  Seiki  and  Ishikawa,  th.^  Amagi,  the  Iwaki, 
the  Kaimon  and  the  Tenryu  were  built.  The  Amagi  was  a 
second-class  gunboat  of  a  displacement  of  926  tons,  the  Iwaki 
a  second-class  gunboat  of  656  tons,  the  Kaimon  a  coast  de- 
fense ship  of  1 ,358  tons,  and  the  Tenryu  a  coast  defense  ship  of 
1 ,547  tons.  All  of  them  were  wooden  three  masted  barks  with 
single  screw  propellers  and  run  by  steam  power.  In  13  Meiji 
(1880),  the  Tateyama,  a  sailing  vessel  for  training,  wooden, 
two  masted  and  of  the  brig  type,  and  of  a  displacement  of  544 
tons,  was  built  in  the  Kawasaki  Dockyard  at  Kobe,   v 

After  the  establishment  of  the  Navy  Department  eight 
years  or  more  elapsed,  and  during  this  time  the  condition  of 
things  was  completely  changed.  Wars  and  complications 
arose  one  after  another,  such  as  the  expedition  to  Formosa,  the 
Satsuma  Rebellion,  and  the  controversy  between  Japan  and 
China,  and  in  recent  times  rapid  progress  was  made  in  the  art 
of  making  arms  and  ships.     In  spite  of  these  developments, 


RESTORATION  TO   SINO- JAPANESE  WAR  .57 

the  preparations  of  the  navy  were  too  slow  to  make  any  prog- 
ress in  the  work  of  shipbuilding.  Consequently  the  govei 
ment  decided  upon  a  policy  of  naval  construction  which  con- 
sisted in  completing  the  work  on  a  twenty  years'  plan.  The 
plan  was  changed  next  year  to  one  of  eight  years,  and  upon  it 
an  annual  expenditure  for  naval  construction  of  3,330,000  yen 
was  paid  from  16  Meiji  (1883),  thus  bringing  about  a  new 
epoch  in  Japanese  naval  expansion.  The  following  are  the 
warships  built  in  the  five  years  from  16  Meiji  (1883)  to  21 
Meiji  (1888): 

Cruisers:   the  Naniwa,  the  Takachtho,  the  Matsushima,  the' 
Itsukushima,  the  Chiyoda,  the  Hashidate. 

Coast  defense  ships:  the  Katsuragi,  the  Takao,  the  Yamato, 
the  Musashi. 

Gunboats:  the  Chokai,  the  Tsujiushi,  the  Atagp,  the  Akagi, 
the  Maya. 

Dispatch  boats:   the  Yaeyama,  the  Chi^hima. 

Training  ships:   the  Manju,  the  Kanju. 

Total:    19  warships. 

Of  these,  twelve  were  built  at  domestic  yards,  the  Hashidate, 
the  Katsuragi,  the  Takao,  the  Musashi,  the  Atago  and  the 
Yaeyama,  at  the  Shipbuilding  Division  of  the  Yokosuka  Naval 
Station;  the  Yamato,  the  Akagi,  the  Maya,  the  Manju,  and  the 
Kanju,  at  the  Onohama  Dockyard;  and  another  one  at  the 
Ishikawa-Jima  Dockyard.  The  type,  displacement,  horse 
power,  speed,  etc.,  of  these  ships  are  as  shown  above.  The 
progress  in  the  art  of  naval  construction  in  Japan  owes  much 
to  the  building  of  these  ships,  which  paved  the  way  for  the 
future  building  of  a  number  of  large  ships.  The  above  was 
the  first  naval  expansion  of  the  Empire. 

The  second  naval  expansion  was  begun  in  the  fiscal  year  of  ^"^ 
22  Meiji  (1889),   and  the  construction  of  the  cruiser  A  kit-        N. 
sushima  was  started  at  the  Yokosuka  Shipbuilding  Division,         / 
and  that  of  the  gunboat  Oshima  at  the  Onohama  Dockyard,    / 
their  displacement  being  3,159  tons  and  640  tons  respectively.  ^ 
In  March  of  the  same  year  the  gunboat  Atago  was  completed, 
and  in  November  the  coast  defense  ship  Takao. 


58  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

In  March,  23  Meiji  (1890),  the  despatch  boat  Yaeyama,  and 
in  August  the  gunboat  Akagi  were  completed. 

In  24  Meiji  (1891)  a  plan  was  devised  by  which  the  second- 
class  cruiser  Yoshino,  the  third-class  cruiser  Suma,  and  the 
despatch  boat  Tatsuta  were  to  be  built.  Of  these  the  Suma 
was  to  be  built  at  a  domestic  yard,  and  in  25  Meiji  (1892) 
work  was  started  at  the  Yokosuka  Shipbuilding  Division. 

In  March  of  the  same  year  the  gunboat  Oshima  was 
completed. 

In  26  Meiji  (1893)  a  plan  was  made  to  build  the  battleships 
Fuji  and  Y oshima  and  the  despatch  boat  Miyako.  The  naval 
construction  expenditure  for  those  three  ships,  having  been  re- 
jected in  the  second  session  of  the  Imperial  Diet,  was  to  be 
paid  partly  by  the  Imperial  household  at  the  rate  of  300,000  yen 
each  year,  partly  out  of  thq  government  officials'  salaries,  one- 
tenth  of  which  was  set  apart  for  the  purpose ;  but  in  fact  the 
building  had  been  started  already  in  25  Meiji  (1892).  In  the 
third  session  of  the  Diet  the  expenditure  was  approved  and 
decided  to  be  paid  out  of  the  national  Treasury.  One  of  the 
ships  was  built  at  a  domestic  yard ;  it  wa.s  the  Miyako .  Her 
keel  was  laid  in  May,  27  Meiji  (1894),  ^  month  before  the 
Sino- Japanese  War  commenced,  at  the  Kure  Naval  Shipbuild- 
ing Division,  and  it  was  the  first  warship  constructed  there. 

The  three  warships  in  the  plan  of  the  26th  fiscal  year,  the 
third  cruiser  Suma  and  the  dispatch  boat  Tatsuta  in  that  of  the 
24th  fiscal  year  were  not  completed  before  the  Sino-Japanese 
War  began  in  27  Meiji  (1894).  Those  of  the  ships  in  course  of 
construction  in  this  country  that  had  been  finished  by  that 
time  were  the  second-class  cruiser  Hashidate  and  the  third- 
class  cruiser  Akitsushima.  Also  the  dispatch  boat  Tatsuta 
was  brought  out  from  England  and  took  part  in  the  war.  The 
warships  of  the  Japanese  Navy  that  took  part  in  this  war  were 
as  follows: 
/^"^econd- class  battleship:  the  Fuso. 

/       Second-class  cruisers:  the  Hashidate,  the  Itsukushima,  the 
Matsushima,  the  Yoshino,  the  Naniwa,  the  Takachiho. 

Third-class   cruisers:    the    Akitsushima,    the    Izumi,    the 
Chiyoda. 


RESTORATION   TO   SINO-JAPANESE   WAR  -         59 

Third-class  coast  defense  ships:  the  Tsukuba,  the  Takao,  the 
Musashi,  the  Hiei,  the  Kongo,  the  Yamato,  the  Katsuragi,  the 
Kaimon,  the  Tenryu. 

First-class  gunboat:  the  Tsukushi. 

Second-class  gunboats:  the  Amagi,  the  Oshima,  the  i4^ag^", 
the  Chokai,  the  Maya,  the  ^/ago,  the  Iwaki. 

Dispatch  boats :  the  Yaeyama,  the  Tatsuta. 

Total :  29  warships,  55,805  tons. 

Torpedo  Boats  ^ 

The  first  adoption  of  the  torpedo  boat  by  the  Japanese  Navy 
was  in  13  Meiji  (1880).  She  was  the  torpedo  boat  No.  i,  the 
parts  of  which  were  made  by  the  Yarrow  Company  of  England 
and  put  together  at  the  Yokosuka  Shipbuilding  Division,  and 
was  of  only  40  tons  displacement,  430  actual  horse  power  and 
14.38  knots  speed. 

In  17  Meiji  (1884)  the  torpedo  boats  No.  2,  No.  3  and  No.  4, 
also  made  by  the  Yarrow  Company,  were  put  together  at  the 
Yokosuka  Shipbuilding  Division. 

Each  of  these  boats  was  furnished  with  a  locomotive  boiler, 
and  had  no  torpedo  tube,  but  was  provided  at  her  stern  with  a 
cylindrical  timber  loaded  with  an  explosive  compound  at  its 
end,  a  contrivance  to  sink  the  enemy's  ship  by  running  the 
boat  against  her. 

In  21  Meiji  (1888),  at  the  Yokosuka  Shipbuilding  Division 
the  building  of  the  first-class  armored  torpedo  boat  Kotaka  was 
finished.  Her  parts  were  made  by  the  Yarrow  Company  of 
England.  She  had  four  torpedo  tubes  and  two  locomotive 
boilers. 

In  23  Meiji  (1890),  there  were  begun,  at  the  Onohama 
Branch  Yard  (the  name  was  changed  owing  to  reorganization) 
of  the  Shipbuilding  Division  of  the  Kure  Naval  Station,  the 
building  of  boat  No.  5  (hull  and  engine  bought  from  the 
Creusot  Company  of  France)  and  of  boats  Nos.  6  to  9  (hulls 
only  bought  from  the  same  company) ;  also  the  making  of  the 
engines  for  the  boats  Nos.  6  to  9,  which  was  the  beginning  in 
Japan  of  engine  making  for  torpedo  boats.     The  design  of  the 

*  No  submarine  boats  were  in  use  in  this  period. 


60  MILITARY  industries:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

main-engines  was:  revolution,  335;  horse  power,  525;  speed,  20 
knots;  single  screwed,  surface  condensing  and  double  expan- 
sion; the  air  pump  and  water  pump  workable  by  the  main  en- 
gine. Of  the  five  boats,  Nos.  5  and  6  were  finished  in  March, 
25  Meiji  (1892),  and  Nos.  7,  8  and  9  in  April  of  the  same  year. 
They  gave  satisfactory  results  in  their  trial  run,  especially  the 
engines  of  boat  No.  6  showed,  even  though  it  was  made  first  of 
all,  as  fair  a  speed  as  19.236  knots.  All  of  them  were  third- 
class  torpedo  boats. 

In  25  Meiji  (1892)  torpedo  boat  No.  10  was  completed  at  the 
Onohama  Branch  Yard.  She  was  the  first  torpedo  boat 
built  wholly  by  the  Japanese  Navy.  In  type  she  was  the 
same  as  boat  No.  5  built  by  the  Creusot  Company  of  France. 
She  was  launched  in  September,  24  Meiji  (1891),  and  com- 
pleted in  April,  25  Meiji  (1892).  Her  construction  was  as 
follows : 

Length:  no  feet  8f  inches. 

Breadth  (in  the  broadest  part) :  1 1  feet  f  inches. 

Depth:  7  feet  11 A  inches. 

Draught  (average) :  2  feet  i  ItV  inches. 

Displacement:  52.9  tons. 

Number  of  revolutions :  335. 

Actual  horse  power:  525. 

Speed :  20  knots. 

Engine:  single  screwed,  surface  condensing,  double  expan- 
sion. 

Boiler:  a  locomotive  boiler  made  of  bronze. 

Rudder:  I. 

Armament:  one  47  m.m.  light  quick-firing  gun,  2  torpedo 
tubes. 

In  26  Meiji  (1893),  at  the  Onohama  Branch  Yard  of  the 
Shipbuilding  Division  (name  changed  for  the  second  time)  of 
the  Kure  Naval  Station,  the  building  of  boats  No.  12,  No.  13, 
No.  14,  No.  16,  No.  J7,  No.  18  and  No.  20,  whose  hulls  and 
engines  were,  except  No.  20,  the  same  as  No.  10,  was 
completed. 

In  the  same  year,  the  building  of  boats  No.  15,  No.  22  and 


RESTORATION  TO   SINO- JAPANESE  WAR  6l 

No.  23  was  completed  at  the  same  yard.  Boat  No.  15,  made 
by  the  Normand  Company,  France,  and  launched  in  May,  25 
Meiji  (1892),  was  purchased  as  a  model  boat  for  those  to  be 
built  in  future.  Boat  No.  20  was  built  in  imitation  of  No.  15. 
Her  construction  was  as  follows : 

Length :  1 1 1  feet  6il  inches. 

Breadth  (broadest  part):  11  feet  6fj  inches. 

Depth:  6  feet  6f  inches. 

Draught  (average):  2  feet  ii|  inches. 

Displacement:  52.8  tons. 

Actual  horse  power:  657. 

Speed:  20  knots. 

Rudders:  2. 

Armament:  one  47  m.m.  light  quick-firing  gun,  2  torpedo 
tubes. 

Boats  No.  22  and  No.  23  were  made  by  the  Schichan 
Company  of  Germany  and  purchased  also  as  model  boats. 
They  were  designed  to  have  a  displacement  of  82  tons,  i  ,200 
horse  power  and  a  speed  of  24  knots,  but  in  their  steam  trial  a 
result  of  only  926  horse  power  and  18.84  knots  in  speed  was 
obtained. 

All  of  the  above  torpedo  boats  are  third  class. 

In  February,  27  Meiji  (1894),  construction  work  on  boat 
No.  19  was  completed,  and  in  March  that  on  boat  No.  11. 
These  two  boats  were  both  of  the  same  type  as  boat  No.  10  and 
third  class,  and  built  at  the  Onohama  Branch  Yard  of  the 
Shipbuilding  Division  of  the  Kure  Naval  Station. 

Supplement 

In  closing  this  section  we  present  some  chronological  tables 
of  the  building  of  the  warships,  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  and 
torpedo  boats  built  at  domestic  yards  from  the  Restoration  to 
the  Sino-Japanese  War,  as  herein  stated. 


62 


MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


Chronological  Table  Showing  Building  of  Warships  and  Torpedo- 
Bo  at  Destroyers 


Name 

Kind  and  Class 

Place  Where  Built 

Material 

Displace- 
ment (Tons) 

Date  of 
Construction 

Seiki 

Gunboat 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal 

Wood 

897 

June,  1876 

Jingei 

Imperial  yacht 

'* 

" 

1,464 

Aug.,  1 88 1 

Amagi 

Gunboat 

" 

" 

926 

Apr.,  1878 

Iwaki 

Coast  defense 

" 

656 

July,  1880 

Kaimon .... 

ship 

** 

" 

1.358 

Mar.,  1884 

Tenryu 

** 

" 

** 

i,S47 

Mar.,  188s 

Katsuragi.  . 

** 

" 

Composite 

1,502 

Nov.,  1887 

Musashi .  . . 

" 

" 

" 

1,502 

Feb.,  1888 

Atago 

Gunboat 

" 

" 

614 

Mar.,  1889 

Takao 

Coast  defense 

ship 

" 

" 

1,778 

Nov.,  1889 

Yaeyama. . . 

Dispatch  boat 

" 

Steel 

1,609 

Mar.,  1890 

Hashidate. . 

2d  class  coast 

defense  ship 

" 

*' 

4,278 

June,  1894 

Akitsushima 

3d  class  cruiser 

*' 

" 

3,159 

Mar.,  1894 

Yamato 

Coast  defense 
ship 

Onohama  Dockyard 

Composite 

1,502 

Nov.,  1887 

Maya 

Gunboat 

" 

Iron 

614 

Jan.,  1888 

Kanju 

Training  sailing 

vessel 

" 

Wood 

877 

June,  1888 

Manju 

" 

" 

*• 

877 

Sept.,  1888 

Akagi 

Gunboat 

" 

Steel 

622 

Aug.,  1890 

Oshima 

*' 

** 

** 

640 

Mar.,  1892 

Chokai 

Ishikawa-Jima  Dockyard 

Iron 

614 

Dec,  1888 

Chronological  Table  of  the  Making  of  Torpedo  Boats 
(From  the  Restoration  to  the  Sino-Japanese  War) 


Name 


No.  10 
II 


Kind  and  Class 


Torpedo  boat 


Place  Where  Built 


Onohama  Dockyard 


Material 


Steel 


Displacement 
(Tons) 


Date  of 
Construction 


Apr.,  1893 
Mar.,  1894 
Oct.,  1893 


Nov.,  1893 

Feb.,  1894 
Oct.,  1893 


CHAPTER  III 

;      FROM  THE  SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO  THE  RUSSO- 
JAPANESE  WAR 

The  Sino-Japanese  War  of  the  years  27  and  28  Meiji 
( 1 894-1 895)  was  in  itself  a  new  standard  and  plan  for  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  army  and  the  navy  of  the  Japanese  Empire. 
As  the  war  was  fought  by  two  powers  on  an  equal  footing  in 
the  Far  East — one,  the  Island  Empire,  with  all  the  civilized 
methods  which  it  had  indefatigably  for  the  thirty  years  since 
its  opening  taken  in  from  the  West,  in  addition  to  the  nation's 
own  characteristic  military  arts  and  tactics;  the  other,  that 
vast  old  country  of  the  Orient,  who,  by  her  early  friendship 
with  Europe,  was  also  well  fitted  with  modem  arms  and  war- 
ships, and  was  casting  a  look  of  supremacy  over  other  nations 
of  Eastern  Asia — it  was  watched  by  the  nations  concerned  with 
special  interest  as  an  opportunity  for  them  to  determine  the 
relative  strength.  It  also  attracted  the  attention  of  European 
specialists  who  were  equally  interested  in  the  event  as  proving 
to  them  the  actual  powers  of  arms  and  war  vessels  made  by 
the  application  of  the  latest  fast  developing  science  and  arts. 

The  war  resulted  in  victory  for  Japan ;  and  this,  having  put 
her  in  a  new  and  heavily  responsible  position,  made  her.  feel 
the  necessity  of  speedily  increasing  her  military  preparations. 
At  the  same  time,  the  war  gave  her  much  useful  experience  in 
the  remodeling  and  improvement  of  military  weapons  and 
war  vessels.  On  account  of  this  necessity  and  with  those  ex- 
periences, the  Island  Empire,  after  the  war,  began  to  increase 
the  number  of  divisions  in  its  army  and  to  organize  some  new 
special  companies  of  troops ;  and  in  the  navy,  to  enlarge  naval 
stations  and  establish  new  ones,  increase  the  number  of  war 
vessels,  build  large  warships,  and  so  forth.  So  the  army  and 
the  navy  worked  on  industriously,  competing  with  each  other, 
to  complete  their  task,  and  in  the  ten  years  which  followed  the 

63 


64  MILITARY  industries:  historical  survey 

war  until  the  next  war  (with  Russia)  commenced,  they  carried 
out  the  expansion  of  their  forces,  enlarging  them  in  a  leap  to 
more  than  double  their  old  size.  The  development  of  the 
military  industry  in  this  interval  of  time  was  particularly  re- 
markable, and  the  achievements  made  were  great  not  only  in 
quantity,  but  also  in  the  fact  that  many  new  plans  in  the  arts 
of  manufacture,  that  had  never  been  seen  even  in  Europe  or 
America,  were  designed  and  worked  out  during  this  time. 
Indeed,  those  select  weapons  and  instruments  of  war  which 
were  used  later  on  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War  were  mostly 
the  product  of  this  period. 

Industries  of  the  Army 

The  factories  that  were  newly  established  for  the  army  in 
the  period  under  consideration  were  the  Military  Clothing  De- 
partment, the  Provision  Department  and  the  Department  of 
Railway  Materials.  The  Clothing  and  Provision  Depart- 
ments were  established  with  the  object  of  economizing  military 
expenses  and  facilitating  the  selection  of  the  supplies  manu- 
factured in  the  military  factories.  This  was  done  as  a  con- 
sequence of  the  general  enlargement  of  military  preparations 
made  after  the  war  which  increased  the  army's  demand  for 
clothing  and  provisions  in  both  peace  and  war  times.  The 
Department  of  Railway  Materials  was  established  to  repair 
railway  materials  and  for  the  manufacture  of  various  supplies. 
As  for  the  factories  already  in  existence,  both  the  Tokyo  and 
Osaka  Arsenals  were  enlarged  and  their  producing  capacities 
were  doubled.  The  greatest  work  done  in  this  period  was  the 
improvement  of  arms,  principally  the  infantry  and  cavalry 
rifles  of  the  30th  year  pattern,  the  quick-firing  field  and  moun- 
tain artillery  guns  of  the  31st  year  pattern,  all  kinds  of  garrison 
artillery  guns  and  the  ammunition  for  all  these  guns  and 
rifles. 

Before  going  further  in  showing  the  development  of  the 
manufacturing  industry  of  arms  and  ammunition,  we  will  re- 
view in  a  general  manner  the  changes  undergone  by  the  fac- 
tories for  those  manufactures  during  this  period. 


SINO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR  65 

Weapon  Factories 

(I)  The  Tokyo  Arsenal. — At  the  commencement  of  the 
Sino-Japanese  War  in  June,  27  Meiji  (1894),  ^.ll  the  factories 
of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  enlarged  their  workshops  at  the  same 
time,  increased  their  machinery,  built  temporary  factory  rooms 
and  made  various  other  preparations  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  moment. 

In  October  of  the  same  year,  the  manufacture  of  mercuricN 
fulminate,   which  had   been  carried  on  in  the  ammunition    ■ 
factory  up  to  that  time,  was  transferred  to  the  Itabashi  powder 
mill. 

In  April,  28  Meiji  (1895),  the  Meguro  powder  mill  was  en- 
larged for  the  manufacture  of  brown  powder. 

In  December  of  the  same  year,  the  sulphuric  acid  factory, 
which  belonged  to  the  Bureau  of  Imperial  Estates  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Imperial  Household,  was  put  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal,  as  an  annex  to  the  Itabashi 
powder  mill,  and  was  named  the  Oji  Chemical  Works. 

In  March,  29  Meiji  (1896),  the  factory  for  gun  accessories 
and  three  other  factories,  viz.,  the  woodwork,  the  forging  and 
the  casting,  which  had  been  leased  to  private  parties  since  23 
Meiji  (1890),  were  taken  back,  and  work  was  immediately 
started  in  them. 

In  October  of  the  same  year,  the  extension  of  the  third 
chemical  works  of  the  Itabashi  powder  mill  was  completed  and 
chemical  work  by  new  machinery  was  started. 

In  January,  30  Meiji  (1897),  water  supply  pipes  were  laid, 
and  a  telephone  was  put  up  in  the  main  factories  of  the  arsenal 
in  Koishikawa.  This  greatly  facilitated  the  work  of  those 
factories. 

In  March  of  the  same  year,  an  ether  and  alcohol  factory  was 
set  up  in  the  Itabashi  powder  mill. 

In  April  of  the  same  year,  the  mercuric  fulminate  factory  of 
the  ammunition  factory  was  closed  and  its  work  was  united 
with  that  of  the  high  explosive  mill. 

In  April,  33  Meiji  (1900),  the  regulations  of  the  Arms  In- 


J 


66  MILITARY  industries:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

spection  Bureau  were  enacted.  These  placed  the  arsenals 
under  the  control  of  an  inspector  general,  and  thereafter  all 
articles  issuing  from  the  arsenal  factories  were  to  be  inspected 
by  a  certain  number  of  inspectors  who  were  to  be  stationed  at 
the  arsenals  and  act  under  the  command  of  the  inspector 
general. 

In  34  Meiji  (1902)  articles  were  drawn  for  the  Gijo-Kwai 
(a  relief  society)  to  promote  the  mutual  relief  of  the  workmen. 

In  April,  35  Meiji  (1903),  a  part  of  the  finance  law  for  mili- 
tary works  was  revised,  by  which  those  buildings  and  other 
structures  and  ships  hitherto  in  use  in  the  arsenals  as  govern- 
ment property,  and  those  to  be  added  to  them  in  the  future, 
were  put  into  the  list  of  the  fixed  capital  of  the  arsenals,  and 
the  expenses  for  their  maintenance,  repairing  and  replacing, 
^ere  to  be  charged  up  to  the  work  expense  account. 

In  July  of  the  same  year,  a  wire-rope  transmitter  and  eleva- 
tors were  set  up  in  the  Meguro  powder  mill,  and  proved  to  be  a 
great  saving  of  labor  in  the  transmission  of  raw  materials  and 

mufactured  goods. 

In  August  of  the  same  year,  the  number  of  workmen  to  be 
employed  at  ordinary  times  in  the  arsenals  was  fixed  at  5,000, 
of  whom  3,250  were  for  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

(II)  The  Osaka  Arsenal. — With  the  beginning  of  the  Sino- 
Japanese  War  in  June,  27  Meiji  (1894),  some  enlargement  of 
working  rooms,  and  increases  in  machinery,  number  of  work- 
men, etc.,  were  effected  in  the  factories  of  this  arsenal,  as  was 
the  case  with  those  of  Tokyo. 

In  November  of  the  same  year,  it  was  decided  that  a  powder 
mill  should  be  set  up  in  the  village  of  Uji  in  Uji  District,  Kyoto 
Prefecture,  and  the  work  of  construction  was  started.  This 
was  afterward  named  the  Uji  powder  mill. 

In  June,  29  Meiji  (1896),  the  construction  of  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  arsenal  was  commenced,  and  the  work  of  the  ex- 
tension and  rebuilding  of  the. factories  for  guns,  gun  carriages, 
shot  and  ignition  tools  was  started.  This  enlargement  was 
originally  attempted  at  the  time  when,  during  the  war  of  27 
and  28  Meiji  (1894  and  1895),  owing  to  the  insufficiency  of 


SINO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR  67 

the  producing  capacity,  it  was  found  necessary  to  enlarge  the 
arsenal.  Then  a  plan  for  it  was  made  in  November  27  Meiji 
(1894),  and  was  about  to  be  carried  out  when,  however,  the 
war  ended  and  the  scheme  was  abandoned.  After  peace  was 
established,  an  enlargement  became  necessary  to  conform  with 
the  plan  of  general  increase  of  military  preparations,  and  the^ 
approval  of  the  Diet  having  b§eii_Qbtamed  on  the  original 
plan  for  an  expense  of  above  (^40,000  3^  for  the  two  fiscal 
years  of  29  and  30  Meiji  (i89^"~3n3'^97),  the  work  was^ 
finally  brought  to  completion. 

In  August,  29  Meiji  (1896),  the  construction  of  the  Uji 
powder  mill  was  completed;  also  the  fixing  of  the  machinery 
on  the  premises. 

In  March,  30  Meiji  (1897),  the  Moji  Arms  Repairing  Works 
were  attached  to  the  Osaka  Arsenal. 

In  February,  31  Meiji  (1898),  a  lunch  box  factory  was  set 
up  in  the  ordnance  factory  for  the  first  time. 

In  May  of  the  same  year,  for  the  first  time  an  electric 
transverse  crane  was  built  in  the  ordnance  factory. 

In  July  of  the  same  year,  a  telephone  service  was  put  up  in 
the  arsenal  connecting  all  the  offices  and  factories. 

In  August  of  the  same  year,  the  factory  building  for  the  27 
-c.m.  cannon  were  completed. 

In  September  of  the  same  year,  a  gas  furnace  for  tempering 
edged  tools  was  built.  In  the  same  month  the  hydropressing 
house  for  the  case  factory  was  set  up. 

In  April,  33  Meiji  (1900),  the  implement  factory  was  es- 
tablished. 

In  August,  34  Meiji  (1901),  electricity  was  introduced  as\ 
the  motive  power  for  the  casting  work  of  the  shell  factory.   \ 
From  this  initiative  other  factories,  one  after  another,  used  / 
electric  power,  and  steam,  which  was  up  to  that  time  the  onlv^ 
power  used,  now  came  gradually  into  disuse,  N. 

In  December  of  the  same  year,  the  arsenal  was  furnished  y 
with  a  1,200  ton  hydraulic  forging  machine.  / 

In  June,  36  Meiji  (1902),  a  shell-making  machine  for  the 
quick-firing  field  and  mountain  artillery  guns  was  installed, 


68  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

and  the  work  hitherto  done  by  the  screw  press  was  discon- 
tinued. 

In  December  of  the  same  year,  women  were  employed  for 
the  first  time  in  this  arsenal  in  the  work  of  casting  lead  bullets. 

Arms 

Early  in  the  summer  of  27  Meiji  (1894)  the  relations  be- 
tween Japan  and  China  were  becoming  more  and  more 
threatening,  and  work  in  the  two  arsenals  of  Tokyo  and 
Osaka  became  heavier.  Great  efforts  were  made  to  supply 
and  increase  their  machinery,  work  hands,  materials,  etc. 
In  June  diplomatic  relations  were  broken  off  and  war  was  de- 
clared. Thereupon,  great  quantities  of  arms  and  ammuni- 
tion being  urgently  needed,  the  work  of  the  arsenals  became 
still  more  pressing;  so  the  force  of  workmen  in  the  Tokyo 
Arsenal,  of  whom  there  was  at  that  time  not  more  than  2,800, 
was  gradually  increased  until,  on  August  i,  it  amounted  to 
more  than  3,300,  and  on  December  i  to  about  5,100. 

In  July  of  the  same  year,  a  9  cm.  mortar  was  cast  in  the 
Osaka  Arsenal. 

In  December  of  the  same  year,  two  workmen  were  sent 
from  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  to  the  Galileo  manufactory  in  Italy, 
for  a  period  of  three  years,  to  make  a  practical  study  of  range 
finders  and  apparatus  for  communication.     This  was  the  first 
dme  that  ordinary  workmen  were  dispatched  abroad. 
X  In  December,  28  Meiji  (1895),  work  by  steam  hammer  was 
/   started  in  the  small  arms  factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 
\^    In  July,  29  Meiji  (1896),  Artillery  Colonel  Nariaki  Arisaka, 
Chief  Superintendent  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal,  started  the  trial 
manufacture  of  the  rifle  of  the  30th  year  pattern. 

In  August  of  the  same  year,  a  12  cm.  quick-firing  gun  was 
cast  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal. 

The  Maxim  machine  gun  had  up  to  this  time  been  used  by 
all  machine  gun  companies  of  gunners.  However,  the  Hotch- 
kiss  machine  gun  was  now  invented  and  this  latter  gun  was 
purchased,  and  tested  by  the  Ordnance  Committee.  These 
tests  proving  satisfactory,  it  was  remodeled,  its  caliber  be- 
ing made  the  same  (6.5  m.m.)  as  the  30th  year  infantry  rifle. 


SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR  69 

In  April,  30  Meiji  (1897),  the  trial  manufacture  of  the  30th   ^ 
year  infantry  rifle  was  finished.  .         /^ 

In  November  of  the  same  year,  a  canteen  making  machine 
was  installed  in  the  Tokyo  Arsenal,  and  for  the  first  time  a 
canteen  was  manufactured. 

In  February,  31  Meiji  (1899),  the  official  pattern  of  the 
30th  year  rifle  was  fixed. 

In  the  same  month  a  lunch  box  was  manufactured  for  the 
first  time  at  the  ordnance  factory  of  the  Osaka  Arsenal. 

In  August  of  the  same  year,  the  manufacture  of  the  3isr\. 
year  quick-firing  field  and  mountain  artillery  guns  was  begun.  \ 
Previous  to  the  adoption  of  these  quick-firing  guns  as  regula-      \ 
tion  arms,  there  were  three  different  kinds  of  regulation  quick-        / 
firing  guns  which  were  the  products  of  studies  carried  on  since      / 
25  Meiji  (1892)  and  called  respectively  patterns  No.  i.  No.  2     / 
and  No.  3.     Pattern  No.  i  was  made  from  a  design  by  Colonel  / 
Arisaka;  No.  2  was  made  by  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  and  No.  3/ 
was  designed  by  the  Ordnance  Committee.     Again,  pattern' 
No.  I  was  of  a  recoil  brake  n>echanism,  had  a  recuperator 
spring  and  no  spade  on  the  trial ;  No.  2  had  an  elastic  spade  on 
the  trial ;  No.  3  was  of  the  hydraulic  buffer  system,  had  a  re- 
cuperator spring  and  had  a  spade  fixed  on  the  trial.     The 
barrels  of  the  No.  i  and  No.  3  guns  were  steel  mantled,  and 
that  of  No.  2  was  made  of  steel  bronze.     All  of  their  gun  car- 
riages were  made  of  steel.     The  31st  year  quick-firing  gun 
was  a  further  improved  form  of  the  above  pattern  No.  i, 
and  was  this  year  decided  upon  by  the  Ordnance  Committee 
as  the  regulation  gun  and  called  the  quick-firing  field  artillery 
gun  of  the  31st  year  pattern.     It  was  also  decided  that  the 
same  pattern  be  followed  in  the  manufacture  of  mountain 
artillery  guns. 

In  October  of  the  same  year,  the  first  manufacture  of  the 
30th  year  infantry  rifle  and  bayonet  was  made  in  the  small 
arms  factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  January,  32  Meiji  (1899),  the  manufacture  of  a  2"]  cm. 
cannon  of  30  caliber  was  started  at  the  Osaka  Arsenal. 

In  March  of  the  same  year,  the  manufacture  of  the  31st 


70  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

year  quick-firing  field  and  mountain  artillery  gun,  which  had 
been  started  in  August  of  the  previous  year,  was  finished. 

In  August  of  the  same  year,  a  cavalry  rifle  of  the  30th 
year  pattern  was  for  the  first  time  manufactured  at  the  small 
arms  factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  April,  33  Meiji  (1900),  the  manufacture  of  edge  tools  was 
started  at  the  implements  factory  newly  set  up  in  the  Osaka 
Arsenal. 

In  June  of  the  same  year,  the  manufacture  of  crucible  steel 
at  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  which  had  been  discontinued  for  some 
time,  was  resumed,  and  steel  ingot  and  castings  were  produced. 

In  December,  33  Meiji  (1900),  the  manufacture  of  a  27  cm. 
cannon  of  30  caliber  at  the  Osaka  Arsenal  was  finished. 

In  the  year  of  34  Meiji  (1901),  at  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  nickel 
steel  ingot  was  cast  for  the  first  time  by  the  acid  furnace.  In 
this  arsenal  this  was  the  first  instance  when  any  special  steel 
was  manufactured  by  a  Martin  furnace. 

/  In  the  35th  year  of  Meiji  (1902),  the  manufacture  of  the 
/  31st  year  quick-firing  field  and  mountain  artillery  guns,  the 
work  of  which  had  been  in  progress  since  the  beginning,  ad- 
vanced so  far  that  all  the  field  forces  of  the  army  were  now 
completely  equipped  with  the  new  guns.  But,  although  it 
was  evident  from  the  result  of  a  comparative  test  that  the  31st 
year  quick-firing  field  artillery  gun  excelled  all  the  other  guns 
made  in  Japan,  the  similar  study  then  being  made  in  Europe 
was  a  further  step  in  advance,  and  many  new  quick-firing  guns 
better  than  any  of  those  in  this  country  were  being  produced 
and  distributed  among  all  the  troops  on  that  continent.  In 
view  of  this  fact,  it  was  thought  necessary  to  make  a  further 
improvement  in  the  quick-firing  guns  of  Japan,  and  the  study 
was  again  taken  up.  Soon  after  this,  however,  the  war  be- 
tween Japan  and  Russia  began,  and  it  had  to  be  fought  with 
the  31st  year  quick-firing  guns. 

Ammunition  and  Ignition  Tools 

In  June,  27  Meiji  (1894),  the  manufacture  of  No.  i  and  2 
plain  powder  and  the  smokeless  powder  for  the  rifle  was  be- 
gun at  the  Itabashi  powder  mill. 


SINO- JAPANESE  WAR   TO   RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  7 1 

In  November  of  the  same  year,  a  suitable  arrangement  was 
made  in  the  ammunition  factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  to  turnV 
out  the  cartridges  of  the  Murata  magazine  rifle  at  the  rate  of    ^ 
400,000  every  twenty-four  hoursj_also,  machines  for  stuffing   X 
"the  po\vder  and  hllmg  the  bullet  were  devised,  and  the  old 
handwork  gave  way  to  machine  work. 

In  the  same  month,  gun  powder  and  shell  for  the  15  cm. 
steel-bronze  cannon,  those  for  the  12  cm.  cannon,  and  a  fuse 
for  the  latter  cannon  were  manufactured  for  the  first  time 
at  the  Osaka  Arsenal. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Sino-Japanese  War  started  in 
this  year,  the  demand  for  ammunition  and  ignition  tools  in- 
creased so  rapidly  that  the  force  of  workmen  was  at  once  rein- 
forced, new  factories  and  machinery  were  added,  and  the  work 
was  pushed  by  day  and  night. 

In  March,  28  Meiji  (1895),  the  manufacture  of  smokeless 
powder  for  field  and  mountain  artillery  guns  was  started  at  the 
Itabashi  powder  mill,  and  in  May  the  manufacture  of  No.  2 
square  powder  was  also  started  at  the  same  mill.  \ 

In  December  of  the  same  year,  a  study  of  the  cartridge  for  \ 
the  30th  year  rifle  was  commenced  at  the  ammunition  factory  / 
of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  June,  29  Meiji  (1896),  the  ammunition  and  ignition  tool 
factories  of  the  Osaka  Arsenal  were  enlarged,  and  their  produc- 
ing capacity  was  greatly  increased,  enabling  them  to  produce 
such  things  as  the  cartridge  case  for  guns  of  medium  caliber. 

In  October  of  the  same  year,  the  blank  cartridge  of  the  26th 
year  revolver,  the  study  of  which  had  been  continued  since  25 
Meiji  (1892),  was  completed  at  the  ammunition  factory  of  the 
Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  November  of  the  same  year,  the  study  of  yellow  burster 
manufacturing  was  taken  up  at  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  March,  30  Meiji  (1897),  the  study  of  the  30th  year  rifle 
cartridge  was  completed. 

In  April  of  the  same  year,  the  manufacture  of  ether  and 
alcohol  was  started  at  the  Itabashi  powder  mill. 

In  April,  31  Meiji  (1898),  the  manufacture  of  yellow  powder 
was  started  at  the  Oji  Chemical  Works. 


72  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL    SURVEY 

In  May  of  the  same  year,  the  temporary  compound  fuse  for 
the  31st  year  quick-firing  mountain  gun  was  manufactured  at 
the  Osaka  Arsenal;  this  was  the  forerunner  of  the  i8-second 
compound  fuse,  the  manufacture  of  which  was  perfected 
later  on. 

In  June  of  the  same  year,  the  blank  cartridge  for  the  30th 
year  rifle  was  manufactured  at  the  ammunition  factory  of  the 
Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  December  of  the  same  year,  for  the  first  time  shrapnel 
shell  for  12  cm.  quick-firing  cannons  and  common  shell  for  the 
31st  year  quick-firing  mountain  gun  were  manufactured  at  the 
Osaka  Arsenal.     In  the  same  month  a  cartridge  case  for  12 
cm.  cannons  was  also  manufactured  there  for  the  first  time. 
In  February,  32  Meiji  (1899),  a  cartridge  for  the  30th  year 
/rifle  was  manufactured  for  the  first  time  at  the  ammunition 
/     factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 
^^  In  the  same  month,  by  melting  the  yellow  powder,  the  man- 
ufacturing of  various  kinds  of  bursters  for  common  shells  was 
started  at  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

In  the  same  month  shrapnel  for  the  31st  year  quick-firing 
field  and  mountain  artillery  guns,  in  May  a  base  fuse  for  the 
same  guns,  in  June  a  cartridge  detonator  for  the  same,  in 
August  a  cartridge  case  for  9  cm.  cannons,  in  September  high 
explosive  shell  for  the  Krupp  10  cm.  cannons,  the  Krupp  12 
and  15  cm.  howitzer,  and  in  December  a  cartridge  case  for 
12  cm.  howitzer  were  manufactured  at  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  all 
for  the  first  time.  In  February,  33  Meiji  (1900),  shrapnel 
shell  for  27  cm.  cannons  was  made  for  the  first  time  at  the 
\^  Osaka  Arsenal. 

In  April  of  the  same  year,  the  manufacture  of  the  Nos.  2,  3 

i^cind  4  smokeless  powder  of  belt  form  was  started  at  the 

/  Itabashi  powder  mill. 

/        In  October  of  the  same  year,  for  the  first  time  at  the  Osaka 

j        Arsenal,  a  steel  shell  for  the  quick-firing  field  and  mountain 

\       guns  was  made.     By  the  same  method  various  other  steel 

\     shells  were  manufactured  after  that  time.     In  the  same  month 

^a_training  shell  for  the  31st  year  quick-firing  mountain  gun 


SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  73 

was  manufactured  for  the  first  time;  also,  a  32-second  com- 
pound fuse. 

In  May,  34  Meiji  (1901),  the  Osaka  Arsenal  cast  by  its  acid 
furnace  chrome-steel  of  ferro-chrome  compound,  of  which  it 
made  some  24  cm.  cannon  breach  shells  on  trial.  This  was 
the  beginning  of  the  manufacture  of  nickel-chrome  steel.  In^ 
July,  shrapnel  for  the  quick-firing  field  and  mountain  guns 
was  made  for  the  first  time,  with  the  use  of  steel  made  in  the 
arsenal.  In  August,  breach  shells  for  the  12  and  15  cm.  guns 
were  made  for  the  first  time.  ^ 

In  July,  35  Meiji  (1902),  tests  of  nitro-glycerine  and  dyna/ 
mite  were  made  at  the  Itabashi  powder  mill. 

In  the  same  month,  at  the  Osaka  Arsenal  the  casting  of 
the  cartridge-case  material  was  started,  using  electro-refined 
copper. 

In  November  of  the  same  year,  shrapnel  for  the  31st  year 
quick-firing  field  gun  was  manufactured  for  the  first  time  at 
the  gun  accessories  factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal. 

The  Osaka  Arsenal,  in  the  same  year,  made  a  24-second 
compound  fuse.  This  fuse  was  made  by  remodeling  the  32- 
second  fuse  by  changing  the  fire-channel  powder  to  one  nearly 
of  the  same  kind;  and  it  could  be  used  for  cannon  above  9  cm. 
Next  to  this  fuse,  an  i8-second  compound  fuse  was  also  made 
at  the  arsenal  for  the  first  time.  It  was  a  fact  that  the  official 
adoption  of  the  31st  year  quick-firing  guns  had  brought  about 
a  great  change  in  the  make  of  the  fuse.  Made  like  the 
compound  fuse  for  7  cm.  cannons,  the  fuse  ignited  well  enough 
in  its  fire  channel  if  used  with  a  mountain  gun,  but  not  with  a 
field  gun.  Therefore,  in  making  the  fuse  for  the  31st  year 
quick-firing  guns,  the  fire  channel  was  formed  of  a  plate  with 
a  ring  of  gun  powder,  for  which  no  powder  compounded  with 
niter  and  sulphur  was  used  as  was  usual  with  the  fuses  made 
up  to  that  time,  but  a  granular  black  powder  was  used  and 
stuffed  directly  into  the  plate.  This  alteration  not  only  re- 
moved the  causes  of  the  nonignition  of  the  fire  channel,  but 
greatly  promoted  the  accuracy  of  its  combustion,  and  the  fuse 
so  improved  was  the  i8-second  compound  fuse. 


74  military  industries:  historical  survey 

Industries  of  the  Navy 

The  responsibility  of  Japan  to  maintain  the  peace  of  the  Far 
East  was  as  much  heavier  as  her  prestige  was  raised  after  the 
Sipo-Japanese  War.  The  perfection  of  mlHtary  preparations 
due  to  her  new  position  was  therefore  necessary,  and  to  attain 
this  end  it  was  decided  that  a  second  enlargement  be  made  of 
the  navy.  The  general  plan  was  to  Increase  in  a  compara- 
tively short  time  the  force  of  naval  vessels  of  Japan  to  a  num- 
ber four  times  as  large  as  it  was  at  the  time.  Furthermore,  It 
was  decided  to  open  a  naval  port  at  Malzuru  and  establish  a 
naval  station  there,  also  to  establish  a  secondary  naval  station 
'at  Ominato.  The  time  In  which  the  work  of  enlargement  was 
to  be~completed  was  fixed  at  ten  years  from  the  29th  year  of 
MeijI  (1896),  and  the  total  expense  was  estimated  at  250,900,- 
000  yen:  But  the  capacity  of  the  naval  and  private  dockyafds 
oi^Ehe  country  not  being  sufficient  to  do  the  work  even  with 
their  full  force,  a  greater  part  of  the  work  had  to  be  appor- 
tioned to  four  foreign  countries, — England,  the  United  States 
of  America,  France  and  G.ermany, — to  ensure  its  completion 
within  the  prescribed  time.  The  war  vessels  to  be  built  upon 
the  present  plan  of  enlargement  were  4  first-class  battleships, 
6  first-class  cruisers,  3  second-class  cruisers,  3  third-class 
cruisers,  3  second-class  gunboats,  i  dispatch  boat  and  23 
torpedo-boat  destroyers,  43  in  all;  besides,  14  first-class  tor- 
pedo boats,  37  second-class  torpedo  boats  and  10  third-class 
torpedo  boats,  63  in  all.  This  was  no  doubt  a  very  rapid  In- 
crease in  the  old  Japanese  naval  force;  and,  in  addition,  the 
highly  finished  work  accomplished  from  the  experiences  ob- 
tained from  the  SIno-Japanese  War,  coupled  with  the  latest 
advanced  arts  and  science,  completely  changed  the  condition 
of  the  Japanese  Navy.  The  principal  improvements  made 
in  the  above  war  vessels  as  based  on  the  instruction  gained 
from  the  late  war  were  reconstruction  of  the  protective  deck, 
the  equipment  of  battleships  with  big  guns,  increase  of  speed, 
structural  reform  of  the  torpedo,-  provision  against  fire  on 
board,  etc.  We  will  state  in  chronological  order  how  these 
improvements  were  made  in  each  of  the  vessels  built. 


•  SINO-JAPANESE  WAR   TO   RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  75 

The  factories  and  workshops  established  in  the  present 
period  are  as  follows: 

The  Maizuru  Naval  Dockyard. — Business  was  commenced 
in  October  of  34  Meiji  (1901)  at  the  same  time  as  the  opening 
of  the  Maizuru  Naval  Station,  the  construction  of  which  had 
been  going  on  since  May,  29  Meiji  (1896).  The  name  of  the 
dockyard  was  altered  to  the  Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal  in  No- 
vember, 36  Meiji  (1903).  The  object  of  the  dockyard  was 
mainly  to  repair  war  vessels,  and  the  accommodations  for 
building  new  ships  were  only  secondary,  the  same  as  those  of 
the  Sasebo  Dockyard. 

The  Naval  Factory  for  Shimrose  Gun  Powder. — Established 
in  Tokyo  in  April,  32  Meiji  (1899). 

The  Workshops  of  the  Takeshiki  Naval  Station  (a  second- 
ary station). — Established  in  May,  33  Meiji  (1900). 

The  Workshops  of  the  Bako  Naval  Station  (a  secondary 
station). — Established  at  the  same  time  as  the  station,  July, 
34  Meiji  (1901). 

The  Naval  Workshops  for  Repairs. — Established  in  Omi- 
nato  as  an  annex  to  the  Torpedo  Department  begun  there  in 
July,  35  Meiji  (1902). 

Besides  the  above,  some  new  factories  and  workshops  were 
established,  or  the  old  ones  enlarged,  in  the  naval  stations  of 
Yokosuka,  Kure  and  Sasebo,  in  consequence  of  their  re- 
organization. 

In  September,  30  Meiji  (1897),  "Shipbuilding  Division," 
the  name  by  which  the  dockyards  of  the  above  mentioned 
naval  stations  had  been  called,  was  altered  to  "Dockyard," 
and  further  in  November  of  36  Meiji  (1903)  to  "Naval  Arse- 
nal," at  the  same  time  the  dockyards  being  given  the  power 
to  control  all  the  other  factories  or  workshops  in  the  stations. 
The  Naval  Arsenal  in  Tokyo  was  reorganized  twice — May,  30 
Meiji  (1897),  and  November,  36  Meiji  (1903). 

Warships  and  Torpedo-boat  Destroyers 

(I)  Warships. — In  December,  29  Meiji  (1896),  the  war- 
ship Suma  was  built  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.     She 


76  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY      - 

wa,s  laid  down  in  August,  25  Meiji  (1892).  She  is  a  sister  ship 
to  the  Akashi,  and  is  a  third-class  cruiser,  being  in  general  like 
the  Akitsushima  in  her  plan  and  construction  and  having 
double  bottoms,  a  protective  deck,  and  twin  screw,  surface- 
condensing,  vertical,  triple-expansion  engines.  Her  dis- 
placement is  2,657  tons,  horse  power,  850,  and  speed,  20  knots. 
She  has  mounted  on  her  two  15  cm.  main  guns,  six  12  cm.  side 
guns,  ten  47  m.m.  heavy  guns  and  two  light  guns  as  auxiliary 
guns;  and  has  two  14-inch  torpedo  tubes,  and  3  searchlights. 

In  March,  32  Meiji  (1899),  the  warship  Akashi  was  com- 
pleted at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  She  was  laid  down  in 
August,  27  Meiji  (1894).  She  is  a  sister  ship  to  the  Suma  and 
is  of  about  the  same  construction  as  the  latter,  but  as  she  was 
built  two  years  later  than  the  other,  she  is  somewhat  better. 
Her  displacement  is  2,920  tons,  horse  power,  7,396,  and  speed, 
19.52  knots.  She  has  two  6-inch  quick-firing  guns  as  main 
guns,  seven  4-inch  guns  and  six  quick-firing  guns  as  side  guns, 
and  twelve  3-pound  quick-firing  guns  and  two  2| -pound 
quick-firing  guns  as  auxiliary  guns,  and  has  3  searchlights. 

In  March,  32  Meiji  (1899),  the  coast  defense  ship  Miyako 
was  completed.  She  was  laid  down  in  May,  27  Meiji  (1894), 
at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  Engines,  twin  screw,  surface 
condensing,  and  triple  expansion.  Displacement,  1,772  tons; 
horse  power,  6,000;  speed,  20  knots.  Guns,  etc,  two  12  cm. 
main  guns;  six  47  m.m.  heavy  guns  and  four  47  m.m.  light 
guns  (auxiliary) ;  2  torpedo  tubes ;  2  searchlights. 

In  May,  33  Meiji  (1900),  the  warship  Chihaya  was  com- 
pleted at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  She  was  laid  down  for 
a  dispatch  boat  in  May,  31  Meiji  (1898).  Displacement,  1,238 
tons;  horse  power,  6,000;  speed,  21  knots.  Her  protective 
deck  is  over  only  one  part  of  her  stern  and  is  made  to  protect 
merely  her  steering  engine  and  rudder  head.  This  ship  is 
called  by  another  name  of  "torpedo  gunboat,"  being  peculiar 
in  her  plurality  of  torpedo  tubes,  of  which  there  are  five  in  all, 
one  in  the  bow  and  the  rest  in  the  bulwarks  (two  in  each),  set 
in  couples  on  the  upper  deck. 

In  August,  36  Meiji  (1903),  the  second-class  gunboat  Uji 


SINO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR  77 

was  completed.  The  ship  was  built  at  the  Kure  Naval 
Arsenal,  having  been  laid  down  in  September,  35  Meiji  (1902). 
Her  displacement  is  610  tons,  horse  power,  100,  speed,  13 
knots,  and  engines,  twin  screw  and  surface  condenser.  She 
was  designed  for  a  light  draught  river  gunboat,  being  of  about 
seven  feet  draught.  Though  she  has  about  the  same  dis- 
placement as  the  gunboat  Akagi,  her  draught  is  less  by  two 
feet,  eight  inches,  and  therefore  it  may  be  said  that  she  is  a 
comparatively  light  draught  boat.  She  has  four  12-pound 
quick-firing  guns  as  main  guns,  3  Maxim  guns  as  side  guns, 
and  I  searchlight,  but  no  torpedo  tube. 

In  January,  37  Meiji  (1904),  the  third-class  cruiser  Niitaka 
was  completed  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  Her  dis- 
placement is  3,366  tons,  horse  power,  9,400,  and  speed,  20 
knots,  and  she  has  six  6-inch  quick-firing  guns  as  main  guns,  ten 
12-pound  quick-firing  guns  as  side  guns,  four  47  m.m.  guns  as 
auxiliary  guns,  and  3  searchlights.  In  spite  of  the  customary 
equipment  of  a  warship  of  this  kind  with  torpedo  tubes,  she 
and  her  sister  ship  Tsushima  are  not  equipped  with  any,  for 
the  reason  that  an  unprotected  torpedo  tube  is  apt  to  expose 
its  own  ship  to  danger  instead  of  injuring  the  enemy.  It  may 
be  added  that  the  third-class  cruiser  Tsushima  was  laid  down 
in  October,  34  Meiji  (1901),  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal,  also 
the  Otowa,  another  third-class  cruiser,  in  January,  36  Meiji 
(1903),  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal,  but  neither  was  com- 
pleted before  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 

(II)  Torpedo-boat  Destroyers. — The  building  of  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  in  the  Japanese  Navy  commenced  in  the  30th 
year  of  Meiji  (1897),  when  certain  destroyers  were  built  by 
England,  to  whom  the  government  had  entrusted  the  memo- 
rable work.  Afterward  the  navy  tried  and  finally  learned  to 
build  its  destroyers  at  its  own  dockyards  by  modeling  them 
after  the  English  ships  already  possessed  by  it  and  adding 
some  improvements  from  the  study  and  experiments  made  of 
their  predecessors.  The  following  is  a  history  of  the  construc- 
tion of  torpedo-boat  destroyers  in  Japan  after  it  was  begun  at 
the  domestic  yards. 


78  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

In  March,  35  Meiji  (1902),  four  torpedo-boat  destroyers, 
the  Harusame,  Murasame,  Hayatori  and  Asagiri,  were  laid 
down.  This  was  the  first  time  torpedo-boat  destroyers  were 
built  at  home. 

In  June,  36  Meiji  (1903),  the  torpedo-boat  destroyer  Haru- 
same was  completed  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  Dis- 
placement, 375  tons ;  horse  power,  600 ;  speed,  29  knots.  Guns, 
etc.,  two  12-pound  quick-firing  guns ;  four  57  m.m.  quick-firing 
guns ;  2  torpedo  tubes ;  i  searchlight. 

In  July  of  the  same  year  the  Murasame  was  completed,  in 
August,  the  Hayatori,  in  September,  the  Asagiri.  They  were 
all  built  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal ;  their  displacement, 
horse  power,  speed,  guns,  etc.,  are  all  the  same  as  those  of  the 
Harusame. 

These  four  ships  were  designed  and  built  to  be  sister  ships. 
Their  engines  were  made  exclusively  after  the  Yarrow  type, 
being  arranged  and  constructed  in  strict  conformity  to  the 
type  of  the  same  company.  They  are  of  a  twin  screw,  surface 
condensing,  vertical,  and  triple  expansion  system.  The  cyl- 
inders are  of  cast  iron  and  have  no  lining.  The  slide  valves 
are  cylindrical  and  made  of  manganese  bronze.  Each  engine 
is  furnished  with  a  condenser.  According  to  the  Yarrow  sys- 
tem, the  water  circulation  of  the  condenser  was  arranged  so 
that  water  flows  into  the  condenser  pipe  by  itself  as  the  ship 
navigates  at  full  speed.  But  experience  having  proved  that 
this  was  not  desirable,  a  different  system  was  adopted  in  the 
case  of  the  ships  of  the  Harusame  class,  in  which  a  circulating 
pump  is  placed  in  the  ship  especially  for  the  purpose  of  draw- 
ing sea  water  through  a  Kingston  valve  at  the  lowest  bottom 
of  the  ship.  Materials  for  the  different  parts  of  the  engine  are 
of  the  best  and  choicest  kind  obtainable.  All  the  connecting 
rods,  crosshead  guides,  etc.,  in  the  slide  valve  connection  are 
case  hardened,  and  for  other  parts  manganese  bronze  was 
mostly  used.  The  high  speed  trials  of  the  four  destroyers 
mentioned  were  not  satisfactory,  owing  to  the  total  lack  of 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  engineers  and  firemen  employed  in  the 
handling  of  such  high  speed  vessels.     Yet  the  average  results 


SINO-JAPANESE   WAR  TO   RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  79 

showed  a  working  pressure  of  190  against  the  maximum  of  257, 
a  revolution  of  379  against  400,  a  horse  power  of  5,600  against 
6,000,  with  a  speed  of  29  knots  in  all  cases. 

All  the  destroyers  were  fitted  with  four  water  tube  boilers  of 
the  Kansei  Honbu  type  (the  type  adopted  by  the  Ship  Ad- 
ministration Office  of  the  Imperial  Navy).  This  kind  of 
boiler  was  first  placed  in  the  warship  Otowa  with  good  results, 
and  that  led  to  its  use  in  the  destroyers.  v 

On  account  of  the  unusual  pains  taken  by  shipbuilders  in\ 
the  construction  of  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  the  work  on  the  \ 
above  four  ships,  the  Harusame  and  others,  progressed  with-      \ 
out  the  slightest  interruption  and  was  even  crowned  with        ) 
a  successful  official  trial,  all  of  which  facts,  it  may  be  said,    / 
added  much  to  the  fame  already  won  by  the  progress  of  the/ 
shipbuilding  industry  in  Japan. 

Torpedo  Boats 

In  January,  28  Meiji  (1895),  torpedo  boat  No.  24  was  built 
at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  Her  displacement  is  78  tons, 
horse  power,  1,150,  and  speed,  21  knots.  This  boat  is  of  the 
same  type  as  boat  No.  21  built  by  the  Normand  Company. 

In  February  of  the  same  year,  torpedo  boat  No.  25  was  built 
at  the  branch  of  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  This  boat  was 
built  after  the  designs  of  No.  22  and  No.  23,  the  Schichau  80- 
ton  boats  purchased  from  the  Schichau  Company  of  Germany 
and  put  together  at  the  same  branch  yard.  She  was  launched 
in  November,  27  Meiji  (1894).  Displacement,  82  tons;  actual 
horse  power,  1,200;  speed,  24  knots.  Guns,  etc.,  two  47  m.m. 
quick-firing  guns ;  3  torpedo  tubes.  Loading  capacity  of  coal, 
87!  tons;  2  rudders,  fore  and  aft;  the  fore  rudder  measuring 
above  6  square  feet,  and  the  aft  rudder  14  square  feet. 

The  first-class  torpedo  boats  Hayabusa,  Kasasagi,  Manazuru 
and  Chidori,  which  had  been  bought  from  the  Normand  Com- 
pany of  France,  were  framed  during  the  32d  year  (1899)  ^^^ 
33d  year  (1900)  of  Meiji  and  completed  sometime  between 
April  of  the  33d  year  (1900)  and  April  of  the  34th  year  (1901), 
Meiji.     The  work  of  building  these  torpedo  boats  from  pur- 


80  MILITARY   industries:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

chased  parts  gave  a  great  deal  of  valuable  experience  for  the 
future  building  of  many  ships  of  this  kind. 

In  November,  33  Meiji  (1900),  torpedo  boat  No.  50  was 
completed  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  It  was  laid  down 
in  April,  32  Meiji  (1899).  Displacement,  52  tons;  horse  power, 
657;  speed,  20  knots.  She  is  a  slightly  improved  form  of  the 
53-ton  boat  No.  15  of  the  Normand  type. 

In  the  same  month  torpedo  boat  No.  51  was  completed 
at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  The  boat  was  built  the 
same  as  No.  50  in  all  respects. 

In  February,  34  Meiji  (1901),  torpedo  boat  No.  52  was  built 
at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  She  was  laid  down  in  May, 
32  Meiji  (1899),  and  was  built  the  same  as  the  two  preceding 
boats  in  all  respects. 

In  April,  34  Meiji  (i 901),  torpedo  boat  No.  53  was  completed 
at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  It  was  laid  down  in  April,  33 
Meiji  (1900).  Displacement,  52  tons;  horse  power,  657; 
speed,  20  knots. 

In  the  same  year  torpedo  boat  No.  54  was  built  at  the  Kure 
Naval  Arsenal.  She  was  built  the  same  in  all  particulars  as 
No.  53. 

In  May,  34  Meiji  (1901),  torpedo  boat  No.  55  was  built  at 
the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  This  boat  was  also  built  the  same  as 
the  two  previous  ones  in  all  respects. 

In  August,  35  Meiji  (1902),  torpedo  boat  No.  56  was  com- 
pleted at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  It  was  laid  down  in 
April,  35  Meiji  (1902).  Displacement,  52  tons;  horse  power, 
657 ;  speed,  20  knots. 

In  November,  34  Meiji  (1901),  torpedo  boat  No.  57  was 
completed  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  It  was  laid  down  in 
March,  34  Meiji  (1901).  Displacement,  53  tons;  horse  power, 
660;  speed,  20  knots. 

In  January,  35  Meiji  (1902),  torpedo  boat  No.  58  was  com- 
pleted at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  It  was  laid  down  in  April, 
34  Meiji  (1901).  She  is  the  same  as  the  last  mentioned  boat 
in  displacement,  horse  power,  speed,  etc. 

In  April,  35  Meiji  (1902),  torpedo  boat  No.  59  was  com- 
pleted at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.     It  was  laid  down  in 


SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  8 1 

August,  34  Meiji  (1901).     She  is  the  same  as  No.  58  in  con- 
struction and  otherwise. 

Of  the  above  ten  boats  (beginning  with  No.  50) ,  those  built^ 
at  the  dockyard  of  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal  had  metal 
aluminum  used  for  their  furniture,  fixtures,  utensils,  etc.  This 
fact,  together  with  the  careful  saving  of  weight  in  other 
materials  used  in  the  side  manufacture,  enabled  the  builders  to 
bring  down  the  tonnage  of  the  boats  to  52  tons.  Another  new 
trial  very  successfully  made  by  this  dockyard  in  connection 
with  these  boats  is  the  use  of  the  abacus  system  of  launchingy 
for  torpedo  boats.  This  method  of  launching  was  in  those 
years  in  practice  at  the  dockyard  for  all  the  auxiliaries  built 
there,  and  now  it  was  adopted  for  every  torpedo  boat  built  at 
the  yard. 

The  displacement  of  the  other  boats  built  at  the  Kure  Naval 
Arsenal  is  53.4  tons. 

In  June,  36  Meiji  (1903),  torpedo  boat  No.  67  was  com- 
pleted at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  She  was  laid  down  in 
May,  35  Meiji  (1902).  Displacement,  94  tons;  horse  power, 
1,200;  speed,  23.5  knots. 

In  the  same  month  torpedo  boat  No.  68  was  completed  at 
the  same  arsenal.  Her  displacement,  horse  power,  speed,  etc., 
are  all  the  same  as  No.  67.  The  average  cost  of  these  two 
boats  is  114,451  yen. 

In  September,  36  Meiji  (1903),  torpedo  boat  No.  72  was 
completed  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  She  was  laid 
down  in  February  of  the  same  year.  Displacement,  94  tons ; 
horse  power,  1,200;  speed,  23.5  knots. 

In  the  same  month,  torpedo  boat  No.  73  was  completed  at 
the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  The  time  she  was  laid  down, 
her  displacement,  horse  power,  speed,  etc.,  are  all  the  same  as 
No.  72.     These  two  boats  cost  on  the  average  89,632  yen. 

In  September,  36  Meiji  (1903),  torpedo  boat  No.  69  was 
built  at  the  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal.  She  was  laid  down  in 
May,  35  Meiji  (1902).  Displacement,  94  tons;  horse  power, 
1,200;  speed,  23.5  knots.  She  is  the  first  torpedo  boat  built 
at  the  Sasebo  Dockyard. 

In  November,  36  Meiji  (1903),  torpedo  boat  No.  70  was 


82  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

completed  at  the  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal.  It  was  laid  down  in 
May,  35  Meiji  (1902).  Displacement,  horse  power,  speed, 
etc.,  the  same  as  the  last-mentioned  boat. 

In  December,  36  Meiji  (1903),  torpedo  boat  No.  71  was 
built  at  the  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal.  It  was  laid  down  in  Au- 
gust, 35  Meiji  (1902).  She  is  the  same  as  the  last  two  boats  in 
displacement,  horse  power,  speed,  etc. 

In  June,  37  Meiji  (1904),  torpedo  boat  No.  74  was  completed. 
The  boat  was  built  at  the  Kawasaki  Dockyard,  having  been 
laid  down  in  June,  36  Meiji  (1903).  Her  displacement  is  89 
tons,  horse  power,  1,200,  and  speed,  23.5  knots. 

In  the  same  month  torpedo  boat  No.  75  was  completed  at 
the  same  dockyard.  She  was  laid  down  in  the  same  month  as 
the  last-mentioned  boat.  Her  displacement,  horse  power, 
speed,  etc.,  are  also  the  same  as  No.  74.  The  nine  boats  which 
have  just  been  mentioned,  beginning  with  No.  67,  are  an  im- 
proved form  of  boat  No.  25  of  the  Schichau  80-ton  type. 
Compared  with  No.  25,  they  are  somewhat  larger  in  size,  less 
in  draught,  but  increased  by  13I  tons  or  more  in  displacement, 
the  same  in  horse  power  and  less  by  ^  knot  in  speed.  Each 
has  two  57  m.m.  guns  and  three  torpedo  tubes. 

There  is  a  disparity  of  24,819  yen  between  the  cost  of  boats 
Nos.  67  and  68  and  that  of  Nos.  72  and  73,  all  of  which  were 
built  at  Yokosuka.  The  reason  is  that,  in  the  case  of  the 
building  of  the  latter  boats,  economizing  was  possible  in  the 
working  expense,  as  there  was  a  certain  quantity  left  over  of 
the  materials  appropriated  for  the  building  of  the  former,  that 
could  be  used  for  the  latter.  The  completeness  of  working  ac- 
commodations by  the  time  of  the  construction  of  the  latter 
boats  is  another  powerful  reason  for  the  difference.  • 

In  July,  36  Meiji  (1903),  the  first-class  torpedo  boat  Kari 
was  built  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  She  was  laid  down  in 
April  of  35  Meiji  (1902).  Her  displacement,  horse  power  and 
speed  are  150,  4,200  and  29,  respectively. 

In  August,  36  Meiji  (1903),  the  first-class  torpedo  boat 
Aotaka  was  completed.  She  was  built  at  the  Kure  Naval 
Arsenal,  having  been  laid  down  in  April,  35  Meiji  (1902). 


SINO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  83 

Displacement,  horse  power,  speed,  etc.,  are  the  same  as  those 
of  the  Kari. 

In  October,  36  Meiji  (1903),  the  first-class  torpedo  boat 
Hato  was  completed.  She  was  built  at  the  Kure  Naval 
Arsenal,  having  been  laid  down  in  May,  35  Meiji  (1902).  Her 
displacement,  horse  power,  speed,  etc.,  are  all  the  same  as 
those  of  the  last-mentioned  boat. 

In  November,  36  Meiji  (1903),  the  first-class  torpedo  boat 
Tsubame  was  completed  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  It  was 
laid  down  in  June,  35  Meiji  (1902).  Her  construction  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Kari  in  all  details. 

In  January,  37  Meiji  (1904),  the  first-class  torpedo  boat 
Hibari  was  completed  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  It  was  laid 
down  in  July,  35  Meiji  (1902).  Displacement,  horse  power, 
speed,  etc.,  the  same  as  those  of  the  Kari. 

In  January,  37  Meiji  (1904),  the  first-class  torpedo  boat 
Kiji  was  completed  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  She  was  laid 
down  in  September,  35  Meiji  (1902).  Construction,  the  same 
as  the  Kari. 

The  above  are  all  first-class  torpedo  boats  of  the  Normand 
type.  They  invariably  passed  the  official  trial  with  good  re- 
sults. Their  speed  was  fully  29  knots.  They  were  the  high- 
est speed  torpedo  boats  ever  built,  and  the  success  which  at- 
tended their  building  is  enough  to  show  the  great  advancement 
then  made  by  the  art  of  torpedo-boat  construction.  Besides 
these  torpedo  boats,  there  were  five  of  the  same  kind,  the  Sagi 
and  others,  in  course  of  construction  when  the  war  between 
Japan  and  Russia  commenced. 

In  this  period  some  submarine  boats  were  in  use  in  the 
Japanese  Navy,  but  they  were  all  purchased  from  foreign 
dockyards,  and  none  had  been  built  in  this  country  before  the 
Russo-Japanese  War. 

Supplement 

The  following  chronological  tables  show  the  construction  of 
warships,  torpedo-boat  destroyers  and  torpedo  boats,  of  which 
record  has  just  been  made. 


84 


MILITARY  industries:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


Chronological  Table  of  Construction  of  Warships  and  Torpedo-Boat 

Destroyers 

(From  the  Sino-Japanese  War  to  the  Russo-Japanese  War) 


Name 


Kind  and  Class 


Where  Built 


Make' 


Displace- 
ment (Tons) 


Date  of 
Completion 


Suma. 


Akashi . . 
Chi  hay  a 
Niitaka . 
Otowa.  . 
Miyako . 

Uji 

Tsushima . 
Harusame 
Murasame, 
Hayatori . 
Asagiri .  . . 


3d  class  cruiser 


Dispatch  boat 
3d  class  cruiser 

Dispatch  boat 

Gunboat 

3d  class  cruiser 

3d  class  destroyer 


Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal 


Kure  Naval  Arsenal 
Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal 


Steel,  twin, 
steam 


2,6S7 

2,7SS 

1,238 

3,366 

3,000 

1,772 

610 

3.366 

375 

375 

375 

375 


Dec,  1896 

Mar.,  1899 

May,  1900 

Jan.,  1904 

Sept.,  1904 

Mar.,  1899 

Aug.,  1903 

Feb.,  1904 

June,  1903 

July,  1903 

Aug.,  1903 

Sept.,  1903 


Total:  8  warships;  4  torpedo-boat  destroyers 


•"Steel"  denotes  material  used  for  the  ship's  hull;  "twin"  means  twin  screw;  "steam,"  steam 
power. 


Chronological  Table  of  Construction  of  Torpedo  Boats 

(From  the  Sino-Japanese  War  to  the  Russo-Japanese  War) 


Name 

Class 

Where  Built 

Material 

Displacement 
(Tons) 

Date  of 
Completion 

No.  24 

Onohama  Dockyard 

Steel 

78 

Jan.,     189s 

"    25 

2d  class 

" 

82 

Feb.,    1895 

"    so 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal 

52 

Nov.,   1900 

"    51 

** 

52 

Nov.,   1900 

"     52 

** 

52 

Feb.,    1901 

"    53 

Kure  Naval  Arsenal 

52 

Apr.,    1901 

"    54 

3d  class 

** 

52 

Apr.,    1 90 1 

"    55 

*' 

*' 

52 

May,    1901 

"    58 

" 

** 

53 

Jan.,     1902 

"    59 

" 

" 

53 

Apr.,    1902 

"    67 

2d  class 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal 

94 

June,    1903 

"    68 

" 

" 

94 

June,    1903 

"    69 

" 

Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal 

94 

Sept.,  1903 

"    70 

** 

94 

Nov.,   1903 

"    71 

" 

" 

94 

Dec,    1903 

Kan 

I  St  class 

Kure  Naval  Arsenal 

ISO 

July,    1903 

Aotaka 

" 

" 

150 

Aug.,    1903 

Hato 

" 

** 

ISO 

Oct.,     1903 

Tsubame .... 

" 

" 

ISO 

Nov.,   1903 

Hibari 

" 

" 

ISO 

Jan.,    1904 

Kiji 

•* 

*• 

ISO 

Jan.,     1904 

No.  72 

2d  class 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal 

94 

Sept.,  1903 

"    73 

" 

" 

94 

Sept.,  1903 

"    74 

" 

Kawasaki  Dockyard 

94 

Jan.,     1904 

"     75 

" 

** 

94 

Jan.,     1904 

"    56 

3d  class 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal 

52 

Aug.,    1902 

"    57 

Kure  Naval  Arsenal 

52 

Nov.,    1901 

Total:  27  torpedo  boats 


CHAPTER  IV 

FROM  THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR  TO   THE   PRESENT 

TIME 

The  Russo-Japanese  War  was  one  of  the  world's  greatest 
wars.  On  land  the  two  engaging  armies  exceeded  one  million, 
the  fighting  line  extended  over  nearly  a  hundred  miles,  the 
battlefields  were  stretched  hundreds  of  miles,  and  the  distance 
over  which  troops  and  provisions  were  transported  from  the 
two  countries  to  the  front  reached  in  all  some  thousands  of 
miles.  On  sea  the  tonnage  of  the  modem  and  efficient  fleets 
of  the  two  countries  totaled  hundreds  of  thousands.  The 
latest  improved  arms  and  ships  used  In  this  war  were  manip- 
ulated by  the  application  of  the  newest  arts,  and  conse- 
quently the  experience  obtained  In  the  war  in  tactics  and 
strategy  was  very  great,  which  called  forth  the  necessity  of 
making  many  Improvements  in  the  manufacture  of  arms,  am- 
munitions, ships,  etc.,  and  finally  brought  about  a  remarkable 
progress  in  military  industries.  Moreover,  during  and  after 
this  war,  some  increase  In  the  number  of  military  divisions  and 
of  special  corps  of  the  army  was  made,  and  in  the  navy  in  the 
number  of  Its  war  vessels,  so  that  after  the  war  large  quanti- 
ties of  arms  and  ships  had  to  be  manufactured,  and  besides  not 
a  few  arms  and  ships  needed  repairing  owing  to  the  damages 
sustained  in  the  war.  All  these  requirements  put  the  military 
factories  of  the  army  and  navy  In  such  an  extremely  busy  con- 
dition for  some  years  after  the  Russo-Japanese  War  that  they 
were  not  able  to  complete  the  work,  even  by  working  at  top 
speed;  and  they  had  to  have  private  factories  do  a  part  on 
contract.  The  quantity  and  cost  of  the  manufactures  thus 
made  reached  unparalleled  large  amounts,  and  in  fact  the 
military  industry  has  now  become  the  center  of  the  industry 
of  this  country,  and  the  large  sum  of  expenditures  annually 
needed  for  the  same  is  forming  the  great  bulk  of  Japanese 
finance. 

85 


86  MILITARY  industries:  historical  survey 

Industries  of  the  Army 

Arms 

In  the  space  of  only  the  ten  years  that  have  elapsed  since 
the  Russo-Japanese  War,  there  is  a  wide  gulf  in  power  be- 
tween the  arms  made  now  by  the  experience  obtained  in  the 
war  and  those  used  at  that  time.  The  following  is  a  brief 
description  of  the  principal  arms: 

(I)  Magazine  Rifles. — The  infantry  and  cavalry  rifles  of 
the  30th  year  type  used  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War  were,  as 
the  result  of  the  experience  obtained  in  the  war,  improved 
in  the  mechanical  parts  of  their  tail  body  and  bolt,  and 
by  the  addition  of  a  cover  sheltering  from  the  dust.  These 
new  rifles,  which  are  still  in  use  at  the  present  time,  were  in 
May  of  the  39th  year  of  Meiji  (1906)  adopted  as  military  rifles 
and  named  the  infantry  rifle  of  the  38th  year  type  and  the 
cavalry  rifle  of  the  38th  year  type. 

(II)  Machine  Guns. — Two  different  types  of  Hotchkiss 
machine  guns  were  in  use  before  the  Russo-Japanese  War ;  one 
with  a  traveling  gun  carriage  and  the  other  with  a  tripod ;  but 
in  February  of  40  Meiji  (1907),  only  the  latter  type  was  adopt- 
ed, with  some  alterations  made  in  the  gun,  for  the  reason  that 
it  was  the  one  most  used  in  actual  war  and  proved  the  most 
convenient  to  transport,  as  its  carriage  could  be  carried  on 
horseback  as  readily  as  other  portable  materials.  In  June  of 
the  same  year  the  adoption  of  the  gun  was  offlcially  confirmed, 
and  it  was  named  the  machine  gun  of  the  38th  year  type,  and 
is  still  in  use. 

(III)  Quick-firing  Guns. — In  the  quick-firing  guns,  both 
field  and  mountain,  of  the  31st  year  type  which  had  been  used 
by  the  Japanese  Army  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  the  ex- 
perience of  the  war  showed  many  points  needing  improvement, 
and  consequently  a  new  model  was  decided  upon  at  the  time 
when  the  adjustment  of  arms  was  being  effected  after  the  war, 
and  manufacture  was  immediately  begun.  These  guns  were 
of  a  hydraulic  buffer  type,  provided  with  the  spring  of  recuper- 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME  87 

ator,  and  the  type  was  officially  confirmed  as  a  military  gun  in 
the  40th  year  of  Meiji  (1907),  being  named  the  field  gun  of  the 
38th  year  type,  which  is  still  in  use. 

The-  most  important  points  of  progress  made  in  the  guns 
were  the  increase  of  velocity  of  firing  and  the  improvement  of 
sight.  The  increase  of  the  firing  velocity  produced  more 
shooting  power  and  made  any  frontal  attack  in  the  day  time 
and  in  the  open  field  very  difficult.  But  as,  on  the  contrary, 
it  would  limit  activity  of  the  army  and  especially  would  prove 
very  disadvantageous  in  pursuit,  if  the  activity  of  the  supply- 
ing organ  be  not  proportioned  to  the  quick  consumption  of 
ammunition,  a  more  careful  consideration  for  the  rear  troops 
became  necessary  from  the  strategic  point  of  view  after  the 
present  discovery  of  the  new  firing  method. 

Improvement  in  sight  made  the  artilleries  of  both  the  of- 
fensive and  defensive  armies  take  shielded  positions  in  most 
cases,  with  the  result  that  the  suppression  at  the  right  time  of 
the  enemy's  firing,  to  help  the  infantry's  attack  upon  the 
enemy,  became  more  difficult  than  before,  and  made  coopera- 
tion of  the  infantry  and  artillery  more  necessary. 

(IV)  Transport  Vehicles. — In  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
every  transport  corps  experienced  many  difficulties  arising  out 
of  the  defective  construction  of  the  transport  vehicles  of  the 
36th  year  type,  especially  the  delicateness  of  those  wagons  of 
the  same  year's  type,  which  was  very  often  the  cause  for  the 
difficulty  in  their  movement  on  bad  roads.  To  overcome  such 
difficulties,  a  two-wheeled  vehicle  for  the  pontoon  was  made  on 
trial,  and  at  the  same  time  the  two-wheeled  vehicle  of  the  38th 
year  type  already  in  use  was  improved  by  broadening  as  well 
as  shortening  its  carriage  and  increasing  the  diameter  of  its 
wheels,  and  upon  examination  proved  satisfactory.  The 
regulation  type  of  military  vehicles  was  accordingly  altered  in 
January,  41  Meiji  (1908),  and  the  former  of  the  above  de- 
scribed new  vehicles  was  called  the  second  transport  vehicle  of 
the  39th  year  type  and  the  latter  the  first  transport  vehicle  of 
the  39th  year  type. 


88  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

Implements  and  Materials 

The  term  implements  and  materials  used  here  is  intended  to 
mean  the  implements  and  materials  for  communication,  rail- 
way, bridge  building,  and  sanitary  purposes ;  and  we  shall  de- 
scribe here  all  those  except  railway  materials,  of  which  mention 
will  be  made  in  a  separate  article  under  the  heading  of  "  Means 
of  Communication  on  Land." 

(I)  Implements  and  Materials  for  Communication,  Tele- 
graph and  Telephone. — The  first  military  use  of  the  telegraph 
in  Japan  was  made  in  the  Satsuma  Rebellion  of  the  loth  year 
of  Meiji  (1877).  When  on  February  19  of  the  same  year  the 
order  to  punish  the  Satsuma  rebels  was  issued,  a  number  of 
temporary  bands  were  formed  to  take  charge  of  the  military 
telegraph,  and  were  sent  out  with  telegraphic  instruments, 
and  at  the  same  time  some  of  the  officials  of  the  Industrial 
Department  were  sent  out  to  take  charge  of  the  military  com- 
munications between  the  various  bodies.  The  distance  over 
which  the  telegraph  was  used  aggregated  204  ri  and  10  cho 
(or  about  500  miles)  in  length,  and  53  stations  were  used. 
Although  in  Japan  in  those  days  there  was  an  army  of  six 
garrisons,  arranged  into  many  classes,  as  infantry,  cavalry, 
artillery  and  transport,  there  was  no  telegraph  corps  organized, 
and  the  instruments  and  wires  used  for  the  military  telegraph 
id  to  be  imported.  The  civil  war,  in  which  the  advantage 
of  using  the  telegraph  was  decidedly  proved,  brought  a  change 
in  the  military  arrangements,  and  on  February  10,  13  Meiji 
(1880),  a  military  telegraphic  corps  was  organized,  and  all  im- 
plements, materials  and  carriages  for  the  military  telegraph 
^ere  stored  in  its  magazine.  On  May  7,  19  Meiji  (1886),  the 
telegraph  instruments  were  attached  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
battalion  of  engineers,  and  in  the  next  year  the  military  tele- 
graph corps  having  been  disorganized,  the  battalion  of  engi- 
neers of  every  division  were  made  to  study  matters  of  the  field 
telegraph  corps.  Although  the  telegraph  corps  engaging  in 
the  field  operations  in  the  Sino-Japanese  War  assisted  strategy 
in  no  small  degree  by  the  use  of  its  instruments  and  materials, 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME  89 

many  defects  were  found.  Therefore,  after  the  war  the  task  of 
improving  those  instruments  and  materials  was  undertaken 
and  in  March,  33  Meiji  (1900),  all  of  the  drawbacks  were  re- 
paired. The  principal  one  of  the  improvements  was  the  trans- 
portation of  telegraphic  instruments  and  materials  by  carriage 
instead  of  on  horseback,  as  was  the  case  up  to  that  time.  The 
newly  repaired  instruments  and  materials  found  opportunity 
for  actual  use  in  the  North  China  affair  that  took  place  in 
June  of  the  same  year,  when  the  field  telegraph  corps  joined 
the  line  of  battle.  With  the  advance  of  the  Fifth  Division,  a 
military  line  of  200  kilometers  was  installed,  from  West  Taku 
to  Peking,  affording  opportunity  for  the  newly  repaired  in- 
struments and  materials  to  be  put  to  practical  use.  In  Oc- 
tober, 35  Meiji  (1902),  the  telegraph  educational  battalion 
was  created  to  educate  clerks  and  study  the  improvement 
of  instruments  and  materials. 

In  January,  37  Meiji  (1903),  the  means  of  communication 
for  cavalry  were  regulated,  by  which  the  use  of  the  telephone 
by  the  cavalry  as  a  military  implement  was  first  introduced. 

In  February  of  the  same  year  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
opened,  and  the  cavalry  was  sent  out  with  telegraphic 
apparatus  and  the  engineering  corps  fitted  out  with  the 
telephones  used  for  training  in  peace  time.  Later  on  in  the 
war  telephones  were  used  by  the  infantry,  also  telephone 
companies  were  organized  by  the  headquarters  of  the  divisions 
for  communication  with  subordinate  commanders  out  on  the 
field;  further,  in  October,  a  temporary  telephone  corps  was 
organized,  when,  with  the  extension  of  the  fighting  line  of  the 
army  out  in  Manchuria,  it  was  necessary  to  bring  the  head- 
quarters of  the  different  armies  into  direct  connection  with  the 
general  headquarters. 

In  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  in  which  the  fighting  line  ex- 
tending over  some  hundred  miles  made  communication  be- 
tween the  troops  in  the  front  and  the  rear  very  important,  the 
telegraph  corps  in  the  field  service  always  acted  quite  in  har- 
mony with  the  movement  of  the  army  and  the  requirement  of 
the  strategy  with  fair  success.     The  length  of  the  lines  put  up 


90  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

/    by  the  telegraph  corps  during  the  war  reached_52,832  kilo- 
/      meters,  and  the  number  of  communications  exchanged  during 
(         the  same  time,  4,694,319,  which  shows  how  indispensable  the 
^"- — telegraph  and  telephone  services  are  for  military  purposes. 
However,  the  instruments  and  materials  used  at  the  time  were 
by  no  means  perfect,  hence  the  repeated  regulations  and  im- 
provement even  after  the  war. 

Wireless  Telegraph  and  Telephone. — Although  the  neces- 
sity of  the  wireless  telegraph  for  military  purposes  was  rec- 
ognized shortly  after  its  invention,  it  was  not  until  42  Meiji 
(1909)  that  any  special  organ  for  its  study  and  investigation 
was  formed  by  the  Japanese  Army.  The  work  of  study  and 
investigation  was  then  commenced  by  the  committee  for  the 
same  under  supervision  of  the  war  minister,  and  is  still  in 
progress,  at  a  yearly  expense  of  70,000  yen.  The  wireless 
telephone  is  being  studied  chiefly  by  the  navy,  but  is  yet  being 
used  in  the  army. 

As  to  the  manufacture  of  instruments  and  materials  of 
communication,  about  one-third  are  made  in  the  military 
arsenals  and  the  rest  by  private  manufacturers,  the  cost  of  the 
same  for  each  of  the  last  three  years  being  as  follows : 

Yen 
44  Meiji     (191 1)  (fiscal) 659,240 

1  Taisho  (1912)       "         633,927 

2  "        (1913)       "        690,256 

(II)  Materials  for  Bridging. — When  at  the  beginning  of 
Meiji  Western  learning  was  adopted,  the  French  system  was 
followed  in  the  organization  of  the  army,  by  which  in  the  6th 
year  of  Meiji  (1873)  six  garrisons  were  established,  arranged  in 
infantry,  cavalry,  artillery,  engineer  and  transport  corps,  and 
to  the  engineer  corps  the  Pirago  trestle  bridges  were  assigned 
as  materials  for  military  bridging,  but  no  materials  of  portable 
pontoon  bridges  for  field  troops  had  yet  come  into  regular  use. 
When  on  account  of  the  Korean  affair  in  17  Meiji  (1884)  the 
fixing  of  regular  engineering  implements  and  materials  to  be 
assigned  to  the  outgoing  troops  was  found  necessary,  the  en- 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO  THE   PRESENT   TIME  9 1 

gineers'  and  sappers'  implements  were  roughly  selected  for  the 
Engineer  Division,  and  thereby  the  necessary  implements  and 
materials  to  be  shipped  to  the  front  were  fixed.  But  as  the 
materials  for  bridging  were  in  those  days  of  too  great  a  size  to 
admit  of  transportation  to  a  foreign  country  or  even  inside  the 
country,  these  materials  were  made  at  the  seat  of  war  when- 
ever the  need  arose.  This  work  was  certainly  a  hard  task  for 
the  men  of  the  Engineer  Division,  and  consequently  improve- 
ment of  the  materials  was  deemed  quite  urgent.  In  the  next 
year,  after  hard  toil  and  application,  a  design  of  an  iron  boat 
was  made,  and  a  number  of  model  boats  was  ordered  from  the 
Tsukiji  Dockyard,  which  completed  the  work  in  two  months. 
These  iron  boats  were  built  of  iron  plates  of  the  thickness  of  5 
rin  (about  1.5 15  m.m.),  each  measuring  6  meters  in  length, 
1.50  meters  in  breadth,  and  0.80  meters  in  depth,  and  weighing 
140  kan  (525  kilograms). 

In  March,  19  Meiji  (1886),  the  new  iron  boat  was  adopted 
after  due  trial,  and  later,  selection  having  been  made  of  the 
various  materials  to  suit  the  boat,  the  official  set  of  materials 
for  the  military-bridge  column  was  fixed.  These  materials 
were  in  those  days  carried  as  a  rule  by  pack  horses ;  and  it  was 
they  that  were  used  for  the  crossing  of  Yalu  River  and  on  other 
occasions  in  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  and  facilitated  the  move- 
ment of  the  field  forces.  After  the  war,  the  power  of  resistance 
of  these  materials  was  not  quite  equal  to  the  increased  weight 
of  materials  used  by  the  field  armies,  and  they  were  kept  barely 
serviceable  by  the  addition  of  a  number  of  cross  beams  and 
other  means  of  strengthening.  In  33  Meiji  (1900)  they  were 
altered  to  a  carriage  transportation  system,  but  before  any 
actual  improvement  was  effected,  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
arose,  and  though  hopelessly  unable  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  moment,  they  were  again  put  to  service  in  the  crossing 
of  the  Yalu  and  the  like,  and  fortunately  enough,  with  the  aid 
of  the  practice  of  "bridging  with  applied  materials,"  succeeded 
in  getting  the  field  armies  over  without  interruption. 

Such  being  the  state  of  bridging  materials,  work  was  begun 


92  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

immediately  after  the  war,  to  improve  them,  with  the  result 
that  a  new  set  of  bridging  implements  and  materials  was  of- 
ficially fixed  in  August,  42  Meiji  (1909). 

All  bridging  materials  are  made  at  the  arsenals,  and  at 
present  the  greater  part  of  them  are  being  made  at  the  Atsuta 
arms  factory.  The  expense  of  their  manufacture  in  three  re- 
cent years  is  as  follows : 

Yen 
44  Meiji    (191 1)    (fiscal) 321,773 

1  Taisho  (1912)         "        239,814 

2  "       (1913)         "        324,436 

( 

(III)  Medical  Materials.— In  29  Meiji  (1896)  the  Central 
Medical  Material  Depot  of  the  army  was  established  in  Tokyo. 
Its  duty  is  the  custody,  purchase,  manufacture,  exchange,  re- 
pairing, etc.,  of  reserve  medical  materials  and  model  articles; 
it  also  carries  on  the  testing  of  medical  materials. 

In  31  Meiji  (1898)  the  Central  Medical  Material  Depot 
of  the  army  was  closed  and  the  Medical  Material  Depot  of  the 
army  was  set  up  in  Tokyo,  the  business  of  which  consists  in 
the  manufacture,  purchase,  storing,  supply  and  qualitative 
examination  of  model  medical  and  .veterinary  materials, 
special  medical  articles,  and  articles  for  use  in  war,  as  well  as  in 
purchases  and  supply  materials  for  troops  stationed  abroad. 

In  42  Meiji  (1909)  the  trial  manufacture  of  tablets,  extracts, 
ointments,  plasters,  powders,  compounds  of  soap,  fluid  dis- 
infectants, disinfected  bandages,  was  commenced. 

In  44  Meiji  (191 1)  a  trial  making  of  surgical  knives  was 
commenced.  At  present,  the  factory  contains  one  tablet 
making  room,  one  plaster  room,  one  powder  medical  room, 
one  disinfected  bandage  room,  one  forging  room  and  one 
finishing  house;  the  hands  engaging  in  the  work  are  thirty- 
five  for  the  making  of  the  special  preparations  and  fourteen 
for  knife  making;  the  principal  implements  in  use  are  four 
tablet  makers,  six  desiccators,  six  double  pans,  two  rollers,  four 
pulverizing  machines,  one  lathe,  one  milling  machine,  one 
wheel  grinder,  one  plating  machine,  two  bellows,  etc. 

By  the  following  tables  comparison  by  the  year  may  be 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


93 


made,  of  different  years'  productions  of  the  manufactures,  and 
of  manufacturing  expenditures: 

Comparative  Table  of  Amounts  of  Manufactures  Produced  in 
Three  Successive  Years 


Fiscal  Year 

Special  Preparation 
of  Medicines 

Consumable  Articles 

Knives 

Sort 

Number 

Sort 

Number 

Sort 

Number 

iqii 

59 
64 

48 

13,798,541 
12,650,320 
17,705,100 

5 
7 
5 

102,896 

134,498 

93,250 

11 
83 
51 

3,543 
5,998 
3,181 

I0I2 

IQI-J 

Comparative  Table  of  Manufacturing  Expenditures  in  Three 
Successive  Years 


Fiscal 
Year 

Wages  of 
Workmen 

Coal 

Electric 
Motive 
Power 

Gas 

Water 
Rate 

Implements 

and 
Miscellaneous 
Expenditure 

Total 

1911 

1912. . . . 
I9I3--- 

Yen 
5,748.76 
7,041.32 
8,248.15 

Yen 
836 
836 
843 

Yen 
410.88 

31537 
35112 

Yen 
7-37 
43-45 
47-79 

Yen 

99.84 

128.16 

150.06 

Yen 
5,439-81 

4,285.79 
14,009.68 

Yen 
12,542.66 
12,650.09 
23,649.80 

Ammunition  and  Ignition  Tools 

During  the  war  of  37  and  38  of  Meiji  (1904,  1905),  many 
cases  of  nonignition  were  found  among  the  base  fuses  for  coast 
guns,  and  therefore  a  partial  alteration  of  the  fuse  was  made. 

During  the  same  war  a  base  fuse  of  the  common  siege  gun 
shells,  in  which  yellow  powder  burster  was  used,  was  adopted 
for  regular  use.     The  same  is  called  the  Krupp  base  fuse. 

After  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  in  38  Meiji  (1905),  the  com- 
pound fuse  of  the  38th  year  system  was  fixed  as  regular.  It 
was  generally  called  the  35-second  compound  fuse,  because  of 
its  consuming  time  of  36  seconds  and  more. 

In  38  Meiji  the  percussion  fuse  of  the  38th  year  system  was 
fixed  as  regular,  and  at  the  same  time  the  percussing  apparatus 


94  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

of  all  base  fuses  was  altered  to  the  same  make  as  that  of  the 
38th  year. 

As  the  advance  in  ammunition  and  ignition  implements 
has  greatly  increased  their  efficiency,  more  defense  works  and 
utilization  of  ground  objects  (i.e.,  a  building,  tree,  mound, 
etc.)  in  the  battlefield  has  become  necessary,  and  especially 
the  increase  of  their  destructive  and  penetrative  powers  has 
made  the  improvement  of  the  defensive  quality  of  all  defense 
works  on  land  and  of  that  of  warships  more  necessary. 

Means  of  Communication  on  Land 

'  Among  means  of  communication  on  land  are  to  be  reckoned 
the  telegraph,  telephone,  railway,  bicycle,  automobile,  etc., 
but  of  the  telegraph  and  the  telephone  record  has  already  been 
made  under  "  Implements  and  Materials"  for  communication, 
and  therefore  nothing  will  be  said  of  them  here.  Of  bicycles, 
mention  will  be  omitted,  as  no  cyclist  corps  has  yet  been 
organized,  and  its  use  is  comparatively  small,  although  the 
use  of  the  bicycle  had  been  recognized  as  necessary  in  war 
time  and  is  at  present  under  study,  including  the  use  of 
the  bicycle  in  the  Sino-Japanese  War. 

(I)  Railway  Materials. — At  the  end  of  29  Meiji  (1896)  a 
railway  battalion  was  organized  for  the  first  time,  and  the 
appliances  and  materials  for  the  use  of  the  battalion  were  of- 
ficially fixed.  In  the  North  China  affair  in  33  Meiji  (1900), 
the  temporary  railway  battalion  had  an  opportunity  of  putting 
to  practical  use  the  above  regulation  appliances  and  materials 
by  engaging  in  the  repairing  and  running  of  a  broad  gauge  rail- 
way between  Tangyu  and  Peking  (about  61  kilometers). 
After  that  affair  the  opinion  of  the  urgency  of  improving  rail- 
way appliances  and  materials  became  prevalent  among  the 
authorities,  and  finally  in  May,  36  Meiji  (1903),  an  alteration 
was  effected. 

During  the  war  that  occurred  in  the  following  year  (37  to 
38  Meiji),  the  temporary  railway  battalion  was  engaged,  by 
using  the  new  regulation  appliances  and  materials  supple- 
mented with  some  other  necessary  ones,  in  the  construction  of 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME  95 

under  parts  of  a  broad  gauge  railway  of  about  65  kilometers 
between  Seoul  and  Gishu,  the  construction  and  running  of  a 
2^  feet  light  railway  of  the  Ampo  line  (mainly  a  line  of  about 
170  kilometers  in  the  line  built  in  the  first  period,  from  Antung- 
hsien  to  Hsiamatang) ,  the  railway  construction  in  the  vicinity 
of  Mukden  and  Hunhopas,  and  the  construction  and  running 
of  a  light  railway  of  about  62  kilometers  between  Mukden 
and  Sinminting,  and  this  served  the  purpose  of  the  field  armies. 
But  in  this  war,  from  various  circumstances,  it  was  unavoid- 
able for  the  battalion  to  use  oddly-mixed  appliances  and 
materials ;  and  though  of  materials  used  by  the  Hand  Truck 
Railway  Division,  which  was  temporarily  organized  during  the 
war,  the  most  were  12 -pound  rails  and  hand  trucks  which  were 
good;  the  other  miscellaneous  things  that  were  carried  with 
the  party  were  not  free  from  defects,  as  they  had  not  been 
studied  beforehand.  After  the  Russo-Japanese  War  the 
Railway  Material  Department  was  attached  to  the  railway 
regiments,  and  at  the  samp  time  the  latter  was  put  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Bridge  Headquarters  of  the  Communication 
Corps.  While  changes  stated  above  have  been  undergone,  no 
alteration  has  on  the  whole  been  made  in  the  essential  part  of 
materials  like  rails  and  railway  points  since  the  organization 
of  the  railway  battalion. 

The  making  and  repairing  of  these  railway  materials  have 
been  carried  on  at  the  Railway  Material  Department  in  the 
railway  regiment.  But  at  the  present  time,  repairing  is 
mainly  being  done,  no  new  materials  being  made  except  small 
appliances,  and  whatever  is  wanted  being  usually  purchased  of 
private  manufacturers. 

The  statistics  of  motive  power,  workmen  and  expenditure  of 

the  factories  of  the  Railway  Material  Department  are  as 

follows : 

Motive  Power 

Number   Horse  Power 

Steam  engines 8  209 

Electric  motors 5  93 

►  .             Gas  engines.  .  . I  70 

Petroleum  motors 2  44 

Total 16  416 


96  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

Workmen 

44  Meiji     (191 1)  (fiscal) 60,760 

45  "        (1912)  and  I  Taisho  (fiscal) 83,390 

2  Taisho  (1913)  (fiscal) 83,080 

Expenditure 

Yen 

44  Meiji  (191 1)  (fiscal) 27,919 

45  "     (1912)  and  I  Taisho  (fiscal) 44,919 

2  Taisho  (1913)  (fiscal) 63,319 

As  may  be  seen  from  the  large  increase  of  the  expenditure 
shown  above,  the  department  is  enlarging  its  plan  of  work 
every  year. 

(II)  Automobiles. — It  was  39  Meiji  (1906)  when  the 
Japanese  Army  began  the  study  of  automobiles. 

In  40  Meiji  (1907)  a  freight  automobile  of  the  four-ton  class 
was  purchased  of  an  automobile  company  in  France,  and  in  41 
,-J^eiji  (1908),  two  more  purchased  of  theSnaidel  Canay  Com- 
pany, also  of  France.  After  several  experiments  with  these, 
in  43  Meiji  (1910),  two  automobiles  for  military  transporta- 
tion service  were  made  on  trial  at  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  which 
was  the  beginning  of  automobile  making  in  the  Japanese  Army. 

In  43  Meiji,  a  pack  automobile  was  bought  from  the  Thorny- 
croft  Company  in  England  and  one  from  the  Gaggenau  Com- 
pany in  Germany,  and  a  study  was  made  of  the  construction, 
design,  use,  handling,  etc.,  of  automobiles.  In  44  Meiji 
(1911)  four  "b"  trial  freight  automobiles  were  made  at  the 
Osaka  Arsenal,  entirely  after  designs  of  the  Japanese  Army. 

In  June,  2  Taisho  (191 3),  four  "c"  trial  freight  automobiles 
(four- ton  class)  and  two  "d"  trial  freight  automobiles  (three- 
ton  class)  were  made  at  the  arsenals  of  Tokyo  and  Osaka. 
Although  no  figures  relating  to  workshops,  workmen,  etc.,  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  automobiles  can  be  given  in  any  sepa- 
rate form,  owing  to  the  fact  that  automobiles  are  made  in  the 
arsenals  together  with  other  arms,  their  manufacture  is  at  any 
rate  annually  increasing,  as  the  necessity  is  increasing  more 
with  the  progress  of  other  war  implements.  At  present  a 
yearly  sum  of  about  300,000  yen  is  being  expended  for  study, 
manufacture  and  repairing. 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE    PRESENT   TIME  97 

Implements  for  Horses 

By  the  expression  "implements  for  horses"  we  mean  the 
harness  for  riding  horses  of  commissioned  officers  and  of 
cavalry,  artillery  and  transportation  soldiers,  that  for  draught 
and  pack  horses  of  artillery,  the  furniture  for  draught  and 
pack  horses  of  the  transport  corps,  horseshoeing  implements, 
cleaning  instruments  for  horses,  etc.  Of  these  articles  the 
harness  for  riding  horses  of  commissioned  officers  is  to  be  sup- 
plied by  the  officers  themselves,  so  the  arsenal  makes  only  a 
little  that  is  needed  for  mobilization.  The  manufacture  of  the 
harness  for  other  riding,  draught  and  pack  horses  is  not  small 
either  in  quantity  or  value,  but  as  the  cost  is  not  great  com- 
pared with  the  manufacture  of  either  small  arms,  guns,  am- 
munition or  the  like,  it  is  not  important  as  a  military  industry. 
Above  all,  these  things  form  a  part  of  "  arms  "  and  may  well  be 
considered  under  that  head,  and  any  particular  account  given 
of  them  independently  would  only  be  superfluous.  Therefore, 
description  will  be  made  here  of  only  the  changes  and  develop- 
ment of  the  furniture  for  draught  and  pack  horses  for  trans- 
portation services  and  matters  relating  to  horseshoes,  which 
are  comparatively  not  akin  to  regular  arms.  The  whole 
interval  from  the  Restoration  to  the  present  time  has  been 
included. 

(I)  Harness  for  Draught  and  Pack  Horses  of  the  Military 
Train. — The  draught-horse  saddle  used  for  the  provision 
wagon  of  the  Arisaka  style,  which  was  an  improved  form  of 
horse-drawing  provision  carriage  made  on  trial  in  i8  Meiji 
(1885)  and  was  in  use  until  23  Meiji  (1890),  was  a  saddle  of  a 
small  size  like  that  for  the  off-horse  of  the  artillery,  and  was 
the  regulation  draught-horse  harness  at  the  same  time  as  the 
fixing  of  the  official  forms  of  the  provision  wagon  and  the 
wagon  of  the  ammunition  battalion. 

The  harness  for  the  pack  horses  of  the  transportation  corps 
in  use  in  the  early  part  of  Meiji  when  the  transportation  corps 
was  first  organized,  was  one  that  was  made  by  altering  the 
common  pack-horse  saddle  on  advice  given  by  Tersan,  a 


98  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

French  cavalry  captain  in  the  employment  of  Japan,  and  was 
therefore  called  the  Tersan  transportation  pack-horse  saddle, 
and  was  of  no  fixed  form.  The  Ordnance  Committee  of  that 
time  made  a  comparative  study  between  a  saddle  designed  by 
the  Osaka  Branch  Arsenal  and  the  Tersan  saddle,  and  as  the 
result  obtained  a  form  which  in  its  general  outline  followed  the 
Osaka  Arsenal's  design,  but  was  better,  and  was  in  13  Meiji 
(1880)  fixed  as  official.  This  was  called  the  pack-horse  harness 
of  the  transportation  corps  of  the  13th  year  form. 

This  harness  of  the  13th  year  form  was  found  from  practical 
use,  to  be  not  only  imperfect  in  some  respects  but  useless  for 
loading  with  unaccustomed  articles,  such  as  the  heavy  and  the 
light  baggage  of  infantry  and  the  engineer  corps,  and  medical 
materials.  Therefore,  in  19  Meiji  (1886),  a  form  of  a  pack 
saddle  was  made  on  trial,  using  as  basis  a  common  pack  saddle 
in  use  among  the  people;  but,  though  it  was  tried  with  satis- 
factory results  in  an  expedition  made  for  the  purpose  in  21 
Meiji  (1888),  some  defective  points  were  found  in  its  construc- 
tion after  practical  use  by  different  companies  of  soldiers,  and 
therefore,  instead  of  this  saddle,  one  that  was  tried  in  a  previ- 
ous year  by  the  first  battalion  of  the  transportation  service  was 
adopted  in  21  Meiji  (1888),  being  light  in  weight  and  easy 
of  manufacture.  This  was  called  harness  No.  i  for  the  trans- 
portation pack  horse. 

Taught  by  experience  in  the  Sino-Japanese  War  and  by  the 
use  of  the  provision  wagon  since  that  time,  an  alteration  was 
made  in  the  regulation  form  of  the  harness  for  the  transporta- 
tion pack  horse  in  33  Meiji  (1900),  the  same  having  been  based 
upon  advice  given  in  31  Meiji  (1898)  by  the  chief  of  the  Tokyo 
Head  Ordnance  Department  and  made  after  due  study  and 
trial  by  the  Ordnance  Committee.  The  new  harness  was 
called  the  harness  for  the  transportation  pack  horse  of  the  33d 
year  form. 

As  the  result  of  the  experience  in  the  North  China  affair  in 
33  Meiji  (1900),  the  work  of  improving  wagons  and  draught- . 
horse  equipments  was  taken  up,  and  a  committee  of  investiga- 
tion for  the  improvement  of  the  same  was  appointed  in  35 
Meiji  (1902).     After  some  trial  makings  and  testings,  the  of- 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME  99 

ficial  forms  of  provision  wagons  and  draught-horse  equip- 
ments were  fixed,  the  latter  being  called  for  the  harness  the 
transportation  draught  horse  of  the  36th  year  form. 

It  was  found  in  the  war  with  Russia  in  the  37th  and  38th 
years  of  Meiji  (1904,  1905)  that  the  above  36th  year  draught- 
horse  saddle  was  defective,  in  that  it  could  not  be  used  as  a 
pack  saddle  where  difficulty  should  arise  for  the  wagon  to  pass 
and  the  horse  be  required  to  carry  the  load  on  its  back. 
Studies  were  made  to  obviate  this  drawback  in  the  saddle, 
and  in  41  Meiji  (1908)  the  form  was  altered  into  a  new  one 
called  the  harness  for  the  transportation  draught  horse  of  the 
38th  year  form. 

All  of  the  above-mentioned  horse  harness  is  made  at  the 
gun  accessories  factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal,  the  factory  for 
implements  and  materials  of  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  the  Moji 
weapon  manufactory,  etc.  Its  manufacturing  will  be  in- 
cluded in  the  expenses  for  arms  manufacture  hereafter  shown. 

(II)  Horseshoes. — With  the  organization  of  the  Japanese 
Army  after  the  Restoration,  in  which  European  systems  were 
followed,  the  European  method  of  shoeing  war  horses  with  a 
horseshoe  was  also  adopted.  Men  were  educated  for  horse- 
shoeing foremen  in  the  Military  Veterinary  School,  and  they 
in  turn  educated  the  farrier  soldiers  in  the  cavalry,  field  artil- 
lery and  transportation  corps,  so  that  ordinary  horseshoeing  of 
war  horses  was  done  by  them,  while  the  horseshoes  for  use  in 
ordinary  times  that  could  not  be  made  by  the  different  troops 
and  those  for  use  in  mobilization  in  war  time  are  made  at  the 
gun  accessories  factory  in  the  Tokyo  Arsenal,  and  if  necessary 
a  part  of  the  work  is  given  to  private  farriers  by  contract. 

The  amount  of  horseshoes  required  in  the  fiscal  year  of  2 
Taisho  (191 3)  and  the  amounts  manufactured  at  different 
places  are  as  follows :  N. 

Amount  required,  435,600  sets,  value  200,300  yen  (includ-  J 
ing  the  value  of  nails) .  / 

Made  at  the  Tokyo  Arsenal 128,400  sets 

Made  by  different  troops 178,800     " 

Made  by  private  manufacturer 128,400     " 

Ordered  from  abroad 15,456,000  nails 

Purchased  from  abroad 2,000,000     " 


lOO 


MILITARY   industries:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


The  horseshoeing  implements  are  made  at  the  gun  accesso- 
ries factory  of  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  and  the  factory  for  imple- 
ments and  materials  of  the  Osaka  Arsenal.  The  value  of  the 
horseshoeing  and  clipping  machine  with  which  the  different 
corps  were  furnished  the  first  time  is  122,841  yen,  and  their 
annual  upkeep  expense,  68,415  yen. 

We  have  now  finished  our  description  of  the  general  out- 
line of  the  different  branches  of  the  manufacturing  industry 
performed  by  the  Tokyo  and  the  Osaka  Military  Arsenals; 
to  this  we  add,  with  the  object  of  giving  an  idea  of  the  develop- 
ment made  by  the  industries  in  those  arsenals  since  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  and  of  their  present  plan  and  condition  of  work, 
a  statement  containing  the  working  expenses,  itemized,  rev- 
enue and  fixed  capital  about  the  time  of  the  Russo-Japanese 
War,  also  the  cost  of  raw  materials  purchased,  number  of 
workmen,  and  their  wages  in  the  first  fiscal  year  of  Taisho 
(191 2)  of  the  same  arsenals. 


Expenses  and  Revenue  of  Operation 


Fiscal  Years 

Tokyo  Arsenal 

Osaka  Arsenal 

Total 

Expenses: 

1903 

IQ04. 

Yen 
6,996,681 
20,509,501 
41,949,520 
16,275,360 
14,277,314 
12,138,806 
10,465,911 
10,161,935 
11,277,923 

Yen 

3,902,427 

13,116,324 

22,331,672 

10,082,726 

8,403,083 

8,314,348 

7,514,183 

7,814,564 
8,276,121 

Yen 
10,899,109 
33,625,826 

IQO^ 

64,281,192 

IQO6 

26,358,086 

1907 

22,680,398 
2o.4=;'?,iS'> 

1908 

1909 

17,980,094 

1910 

17,976,500 

IQII 

19,554,044 

Revenue: 

lOO'l  

7.362,579 
20,209,979 
41,091,780 
17,544.358 
13,766,449 
13,165,292 
12,381,949 
10,372,866 
11,284,812 
11,837,581 

4,286,415 
14,383,827 
22,405,876 
9,412,435 
8,041,194 
8,249,420 
8,311,421 
7,897,530 
8,597,674 
8,835,494 

11,648,99s 

1904. 

34,593,807 

iqos 

63,497,658 

1906 

26,956,794 

1907 

iqo8 

21,807,644 
21,414,712 

1909 

20,693,370 

1910 

18,270,396 

iqn 

19,882,489 

1912 

20,673,075 

RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO  THE   PRESENT  TIME  lOI 

Expenses  for  Raw  Materials 


Material 

Tokyo  Arsenal 

Osaka  Arsenal 

Total 

Metal 

Yen 
1.365,118 
1,233,566 

967,707 
1,067,196 

875,808 

Yen 
1,962,648 
1,183,840 
812,057 
570,815 
670,056 

Yen 
3,327,767 

Leather 

2,417,406 

Timber 

Powder  material 

Miscellaneous 

1,779,765 
1,638,011 
1,545,865 

Total 

5,509,395 

5. 199.416 

10,708,814 

Details  of  Revenue  from  Operation  of  Arsenals 


Fiscal  Years 


Ordered  by  Imperial 
Army  and  Navy 


Ordered  by 
the  People 


Total 


1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 


Yen 
23,683,812 
20,671,928 
20,472,132 
19,735,706 
16,756,823 
14,441,781 
16,982,109 


Yen 
3,272,981 
1,135,716 
1,404,693 
1,376,556 
1,456,499 
5,440,707 
3,690,966 


Yen 

26,956,793 
21,807,644 
21,876,825 
21,112,262 
18,213,322 
19,882,488 
20,673,075 


Workmen  Engaged  in  Arsenals  and  Wages  at  End  of  Fiscal  Year  1912 

Workmen 


Number 

Working  Number  for  a  Year 

Arsenals 

Male 

Female 

Total 

Male 

Female 

Total 

Tokyo  

Osaka 

14,398 
9,688 

2,969 
792 

17,367 
10,480 

4,075.582 
3.123,499 

804,753 
204,370 

4,880,335 
3,327,869 

Total 

24,086 

3,761 

27,847 

7,199,081 

1,009,123 

8,208,204 

Wages  for  a  Year 

Arsenals 

Male 

Female 

Total 

Tokyo 

3,569,139 
2,367,520 

329,593 
68,229 

3,898,732 
2,435,749 

Osaka 

Total 

5.936,659 

397,822 

6,334.481 

102 


MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


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RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


103 


The  principal  articles  being  made  at  the  factories  In  the 
Tokyo  and  Osaka  Arsenals  at  present  are  as  follows : 

Armament  Manufactures,  Tokyo  and  Osaka 


Arsenals 

Factories 

Locations 

Principal  Articles 

Tokyo 

Small  arms  factory 
Gun  accessories  factory 

Delicate  instrument 

factory 
Ammunition  factory 
High  explosive  factory 
Itabashi  powder  mill 
Meguro  powder  mill 
Iwabana  powder  mill 
Atsuta  arms  manu- 
factory 

Tokyo 

Oj 

Itabashi 
Meguro 
Iwabana 
Nagoya 

Small  arms,  pistols,  bayonets,  machine  rifles 

Sabres,  harnesses,  ammunition  pouches,  arms 
of  leather  or  hemp,  various  castings,  shells, 
tools  for  artificers,  tools  for  firing,  ordnance 
maker,  horseshoes,  canteen,  implements  for 
horseshoe  making,  etc. 

Field  glasses,  range  finders,  training  gears, 
communication  instruments,  electric  arms 

Substantial  and  empty  cartridges  for  rifles 

Detonators,  fuses,  ignition  tools 

Powder,  explosive  compounds 

Powder 

Powder,  explosive  compounds 

Carriages,  implements,  materials,  etc. 

Osaka 

Ordnance  factory 
Shell  manufactory 
High  explosive  factory 
Ironworks 

Factory  for  implements 
aad  their  materials 

Cartridge  factory 

Uji  powder  mill 
Moji  weapons  manu- 
factory 

Osaka 
Osaka 

Uji 
Moji 

Guns 

Shells 

Detonators,  fuses,  powder 

Castings,  forged  articles,  steel  as  material 

Carriages,  harnesses,  ammunition  pouches, 
arms  of  leather  or  hemp,  tools  for  artificers, 
tools  for  firing,  ordnance  maker,  materials 
for  implements,  implements  for  making 
horseshoes 

Cartridges  for  guns,  castings  of  alloys,  lunch 
boxes,  etc. 

Powder,  explosive  compounds 

Carriages,  leather  implements,  etc. 

Clothing  and  Equipment 

In  this  article,  on  the  same  ground  as  stated  above,  a  sum- 
mary of  the  history  from  the  starting  of  the  Industries  up  to 
the  present  Is  given. 

(I)  Clothing. — The  manufacture  of  military  clothing  was 
begun  In  July,  21  Meljl  (1888),  when  the  Senju  woolen  cloth 
factory,  making  woolen  cloth  as  the  material  for  clothing  as  Its 
principal  work,  was  removed  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  Commerce  to  that  of  the  War 
Department.  But  the  labor  In  this  line  was  not  so  confused 
as  In  the  case  of  the  arms  Industry,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
work  the  amount  of  products  was  too  small  to  be  given 
separately  for  several  periods.  The  military  clothing  de- 
partment, In  charge  of  shoemaking,  tailoring,  etc.,  as  its 
principal  occupations,  was  established  in  35  Meiji  (1902),  only 


104  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

a  little  more  than  a  year  before  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  and 
therefore  there  was  no  particular  work  performed  in  the  same 
department  which  is  worth  mentioning  under  the  separate 
heads  of  "before"  and  "after"  the  same  war.  For  the  sake, 
therefore,  of  economizing  space  in  this  subdivision  is  given  the 
outline  of  the  history  since  the  starting  of  work  of  these  two 
factories  and  a  general  view  of  the  manufacture  performed 
there  last  year. 

(a)  Woolen  Cloth  Manufacture. — The  site  of  the  Senju 
woolen  cloth  factory  was  placed  at  Minami-gumi,  Senju, 
Kitatoshima  District,  Tokyo  Prefecture,  in  June,  lo  Meiji 
(1877) ;  in  July  construction  was  begun,  and  in  September,  12 
Meiji  (1879),  work  was  started  therein.  The  factory,  which 
had  been  at  first  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Department  of 
Civil  Affairs,  was  removed  to  that  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  Commerce  when  the  latter  was  established, 
and  since  July,  21  Meiji  (1888),  has  been  administered  by  the 
War  Department. 

The  factory,  as  the  leader  and  an  instructor  of  the  same  in- 
dustry carried  on  by  the  people,  encouraged  the  development 
of  the  manufacture,  because  in  the  days  when  that  factory  was 
established  Japan  in  order  to  meet  all  her  demands  for  woolen 
cloth  relied  entirely  upon  imports,  and  had  no  such  enterprise. 
When  in  19  Meiji  (1886)  the  style  of  military  clothing  was 
altered  and  it  was  decided  that  the  clothing  for  non-commis- 
sioned officers  and  soldiers  should  be  made  of  woolen  cloth,  the 
demand  was  suddenly  increased  and  the  manufacture  thereof 
was  committed  to  the  chief  user  of  woolen  cloth,  the  mili- 
tary, which  has  mainly  engaged  in  manufacturing  for  itself. 
Thereafter  the  work  was  enlarged  as  woolen  cloth  was  increas- 
ingly demanded  for  the  military  service,  and  as  a  result,  the  old 
factories  were  extended  and  new  ones,  artificial  woolen  facto- 
ries for  utilizing  waste  products,  were  established,  all  of  which 
perfected  the  arrangement  of  the  work.  The  manufacture  of 
the  cloth  of  dressed  wool  for  the  summer  uniforms  of  officers 
was  commenced,  which  was  followed  by  felt  making  under- 
taken for  the  first  time  for  the  purpose  of  utilizing  waste 
products. 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT  TI\rE  IO5 

This  factory  is,  to  be  sure,  the  pioneer  of  the  mechanical  in- 
dustry in  Japan  which,  at  that  early  time  when  the  industry 
of  Japan  was  yet  in  its  infancy,  was  provided  with  motive 
engines,  spinning  machines,  power  looms,  etc.  The  factory 
warmly  received  visitors  who  came  to  obtain  a  view  of  the  only 
factory  of  its  kind  in  those  days,  and,  aiming  at  kindness  in 
guidance  and  explanation,  and  endeavoring  to  instill  the 
knowledge  of  the  work,  it  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  diffu- 
sion of  the  industrial  idea  in  both  a  direct  and  an  indirect 
manner.  As  stated  above,  the  factory  was  established  at  a 
time  when,  although  the  demand  for  woolen  cloth  had  gradually 
increased  since  the  Restoration  of  Meiji,  the  country  had  no 
woolen  industry,  and  necessarily  imported  all  such  articles. 
In  those  days  things  were  in  such  a  condition  that  no  work  de- 
manding capital  and  knowledge  could  be  developed  without 
the  help  and  encouragement  of  the  government.  This  is  the 
reason  why  the  manufactory  as  the  leader  in  the  work  at  the 
time  of  its  establishment,  by  showing  a  model  to  the  people, 
was  devoting  itself  to  the  development  of  the  same  work.  As 
the  perfect  development  of  the  woolen  cloth  manufacture 
necessitates  a  home  supply  of  wool,  sheep  farming  was  widely 
encouraged  among  the  people.  But  the  result  of  the  enter- 
prise was  very  unfortunate.  While  thereafter  the  demand  of 
the  military  for  woolen  cloth  increased  more  and  more,  there 
was  no  popular  enterprise  in  existence,  and  so  the  factory, 
upon  its  removal  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  War  Department, 
diligently  endeavored  to  advance  the  work  by  manufacturing 
military  woolen  cloth  as  its  principal  service.  Afterwards  the  ^ 
woolen  industry  sprung  into  existence  among  the  people,  and 
so  the  factory  left  not  only  the  woolen  cloth  needed  by  the 
people  which  had  been  supplied  by  the  same  factory  as  its  sub- 
sidiary work,  but  also  a  part  of  the  military  woolen  cloth,  to 
private  manufacture,  and  thus  encouraged  the  development  of 
the  work  among  the  people.  On  the  other  hand,  the  equip-  J 
ment  of  the  factory,  the  selection  of  the  machines,  the  training 
and  distribution  of  the  workmen,  and  instruction  in  the  art 
were   perfected   as   much   as    possible.     Since    the    factory 


I06  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

was  established,  thirty-four  years  have  elapsed,  and  the 
number  of  workmen  employed  in  this  period  has  amounted 
to  some  ten  thousand,  although  it  is  difficult  to  give  the  exact 
number  of  those  who  have  been  employed  or  dismissed.  And 
how  frequently  the  workmen  were  changed  is  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  about  half  of  the  present  workmen  are  those  who 
have  entered  the  service  during  the  last  three  years.  Of  those 
who  leave  their  positions,  there  are  not  a  few  who  are  old,  dis- 
abled or  sick  and  too  weak  to  work,  while  there  are  many  who 
have  obtained  employment  in  factories  among  the  people  be- 
cause of  the  skill  gained  at  the  government  factory.  This  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  the_ withdrawal  frnm  <^prvirp  of  the 
worknien  on  thejmotive  engine  has  amounted  to  the  largest 
number  because  of  their  being  available'tof  any  part  needing 
mecHanicalart.  Those  who  engage  in  spinning,  webbing,  etc., 
mayT)e  hired  for  the  spinning  of  cotton  muslin,  to  say  nothing 
of  woolen  cloth  manufacture.  It  is  also  a  matter  of  course 
that  the  workmen  engaged  in  the  woolen  cloth  manufacture 
were  welcomed,  because  of  their  experience  in  the  art,  by 
factories  engaging  in  the  same  manufacture.  In  these  several 
ways  the  factory,  from  its  establishment  up  to  the  present  time, 
has  benefited  in  no  small  degree  the  industry  at  large. 

General  View  of  the  Manufacture  at  Present 

ixed  capital 1,901,521    yen 

Working  capital i  ,000,000     " 

Number  of  factories 9  principal  ones 

Motive  powers  (16): 

Steam  engines  (7) 554  h.  p. 

Dynamos  driven  by  steam  power  (5) 805     " 

Gas  engines  (i ) 5 

Electric  motors  (3) 140     " 

1504  h.  p. 

Forty-eight  officers  and  clerks,  57  employes  for  miscellane- 
ous affairs,  474  males,  459  females^33  workmen  in  all. 

Coal  consumed  during  a  year,  18,967  tons. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  the  manufactures, 
expenses  of  and  revenue  from  the  work  and  the  value  of  the 
products : 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


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I08  MILITARY  INDUSTRIEIS:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

Expenditures  and  Receipts  for  and  from  Work  in  the  Senju  Woolen 

Cloth  Factory 

Expense  of  Revenue  from 

Fiscal  Year                                                   Operation  Operation 

Yen  Yen 

1903 1,658,280  13,228,867 

1904 4,502,915  39,141,899 

1905 3,595,082  67,035,290 

1906 3,661,015  30,766,399 

1907 3,415,713  25,173,997 

1908 2,687,144  24,133,867 

1909.  .  .  .  ; 2,248,182  23,040,116 

1910 2,1 16,934  20,526,263 

1911 2,167,217  22,111,491 

Value  of  Products  of  the  Senju  Woolen  Cloth  Factory 


Woolen 
Cloth 

Artificial 
Wool 

Blankets 

Total 

For  Sale 

Fiscal  Year 

Used  in 
Military 
Service 

Others 

loio 

Yen 
2,221,362 

2,439,135 
2,610,670 

Yen 

3,483 
3,105 

734 

Yen 

64,750 

81,434 

123,076 

Yen 
2,289,595 

2,523,674 
2,734,480 

Yen 
1,888,062 
2,082,441 
2,249,69^ 

Yen 
145,540 
213,991 
168,275 

IQII 

IQI2 

Note:  Articles  excepting  those  denoted  by  "for  sale "  are  not  yet  sold  but  stored. 


Materials  needed  for  the  industry  in  question  are  classified 
according  to  places  of  supply  as  follows: 

(I)  Kind  of  Articles,  (i)  Manufactures,  (a)  Domestic 
Products. — Thistle  nuts,  ammonia,  sulphuric  acid,  leather 
manufactures  (belts,  ox-hide  belts),  manufactures  of  cotton 
yam  (spindle  bands,  spindle  cotton),  brick,  cocoanut,  palm 
oil,  cotton  belt,  hemp  manufactures  (spun  yam,  selvage  yarn, 
hemp,  rope),  cement,  camphor  oil,  machine  oil,  refined  oil, 
valve  oil,  engine  oil,  coal,  machines,  machine  accessories,  tim- 
ber, warming  belts. 

(b)  Imports  from  Foreign  Countries. — Hemp  cloth  (broad), 
mompa  (a  kind  of  cotton  flannel)  (broad),  card  clothings, 
oleine  oil,  leather  manufactures  (belts,  rubbers),  olive  oil,  ma- 
chines, machine  accessories,  machine  oil. 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME  IO9 

(2)  Semi-manufactured  Articles,  (a)  Domestic  Products. — 
Tops  with  roll. 

(b)  Imports  from  Foreign  Countries. — Tops  for  woolen  cloth 
manufacture,  nails  for  the  same  object. 

(3)  Raw  Materials,  (a)  Domestic  Products. — ^Wool,  mate- 
rials for  artificial  wool  (for  socks,  hand  shoes),  dyestuffs 
(acetic  acid,  indigo  ball,  acetic  ammonia,  sulphate  of  soda). 

(b)  Imports  from  Colonies. — Wool,  coal. 

(c)  Imports  from  Foreign  Countries. — Wool,  dyestuff. 
Clothing  Manufacture, — The  principal  items  of  clothing," 

caps,  uniforms,  summer  coats,  and  trousers,  overcoats,  puttees 
and  military  shoes  are  to  be  made  in  this  factory,  and  the 
others,  many  of  them  being  accessories  to  clothing,  are  pur 
chased  from  the  manufacturers  at  large.  As  the  organs  for  cloth 
ing  manufacture,  the  head  department  of  military  clothing  is  lo- 
cated in  Tokyo,  with  branches  in  Osaka  and  Hiroshima,  which 
locations  were  selected  in  consideration  of  convenience  in  the 
delivery  of  manufactures  to  every  military  division  and  in  the 
supply  of  raw  materials  and  workmen.  In  the  following  para- 
graphs is  shown  an  outline  of  the  history  of  these  offices. 

In  35  Meiji  (1902),  the  shoemaking  factory  was  set  up  in 
Tokyo,  and  military  shoes  were  made  there  for  the  first  time; 
next  the  cutting  factory  for  cutting  materials  was  established 
in  the  same  city;  and  in  the  next  year  a  branch  of  the  latter 
factory  was  established  in  Osaka. 

In  37  Meiji  (1904),  the  head  department  in  Tokyo  and  the 
branch  in  Osaka  started  the  sewing  of  the  principal  clothing 
articles. 

In  38  Meiji  (1905),  in  the  Osaka  branch  the  shoemaking 
factory  was  set  up  and  work  started. 

In  40  Meiji  (1907),  a  branch  was  located  in  Hiroshima,  and 
sewing  was  started  there.  After  that,  the  service  being  grad- 
ually enlarged,  in  43  Meiji  (1910),  the  shoemaking  factory  was 
set  up,  which  resulted  in  a  great  expansion  of  the  work. 


no 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


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RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE    PRESENT   TIME 


III 


A  General  View  of  the  Manufacture  at  Present 

The  work  of  this  manufactory  is  the  manufacture,  mainly 
by  the  use  of  mechanical  power,  of  clothing  (military  clothing 
and  shoes)  for  noncommissioned  officers  and  soldiers.  The 
number  of  factories,  men  engaged,  and  articles  made  in  this 
manufactory  at  present  are  approximately  as  follows : 


NUMBER  OF  FACTORIES,  MEN  ENGAGED  AND  MOTIVE  ENGINES 
(I)  Number  of  Factories 


Factories 

Head 
Arsenal 

Osaka 
Branch 

Hiroshima 
Branch 

Total 

Sewing  factories 

4 

2 

3 

I 

4 

2 

II 

Shoemaking  factories 

s 

Total 

6 

4 

6 

l6 

(II)  Number  of  Workmen 


Factories 

Head  Arsenal 

Osaka  Branch 

Hiroshima 
Branch 

Total 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Males 

Females 

Sewing 
Shoemak- 
ing fac- 
tories .... 

133 
157 

506 
16 

56 
103 

377 
10 

81 
79 

409 
20 

270 
339 

1,292 
46 

Total 

290 

522 

159 

387 

160 

429 

609 

1,338 

(III)  Motive  Power  Engines 

(7)  Number 


Arsenals 

Steam 
Engines 

Dynamos 

Electro- 
motors 

Gas 
Motors 

Petroleum 
Motors 

Head     Arse- 
nal   

Osaka 

Branch .  . . 

Hiroshima 
Branch . . . 

2 
I 
I 

4 
2 
I 

24 
3 
9 

3 

2 
4 

Total .  . 

-^ 

7 

36 

3 

6 

112 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


(III)  Motive  Power  Engines — Continued 
(2)  Horse  Power 


Arsenals 

Steam 
Engines 

Dynamos 

Electro- 
motors 

Gas 
Motors 

Petroleum 
Motors 

Head     Arse- 
nal   

Osaka 

Branch  .  .  . 

Hiroshima 
Branch .  .  . 

220 

80 

75 

149 
20 

2 

169 

13 
27 

32 

II 

35 

Total  .  . 

375 

171 

209 

32 

46 

(j)  Fuel  and  Electric  Power  Consumed  During  a  Fiscal  Year 


Arsenals 

Coal 

Gas 

Petroleum 

Electric 
Power 

Head  Arsenal 

Osaka  Branch 

Hiroshima  Branch .... 

Tons 
885 
607 
618 

J, 000  eft. 
82 

Koku 

3 
20 

K.W.H. 
6,996 

12,647 

Total 

2,110 

82 

23 

19,643 

The  following  is  a  table  comparing  the  expenditures  for 
manufacture  during  three  fiscal  years: 

Articles  1910               191 1  1912 

Yen                  Yen  Yen 

Caps 51,802  111,372  129,204 

Winter  coats 860,448  874,201  351,230 

Winter  trousers 678,346  874,565  666,422 

Summer  coats 126,725  302,790  357,444 

Summer  trousers 1 17,403  292,243  266,484 

Overcoats 1,711,052  968,853  754,475 

Puttees 165,955  147,000  211,733 

Laced  boots 588,732  670,590  547,894 

Boots 42,940  33,544  547,894 

Long  boots 16,109  27,898  112,603  y 

Total 4,359,512  4,303,056      3,945.383    / 

The  principal  materials  for  manufactures  according  to  the 
places  of  supply  are  classified  as  follows: 

(I)  Kind  of  Articles,  (i)  Manufactures,  (a)  Domestic 
Products. — Yellowish-brown  cloth,  cloth  for  gaiters,  cloth  for 
badges,  woolen  yam  for  hosiery,  drillings,  leather  cotton  cloth, 
cotton  flannel,  cotton  yarn,  mompa  (a  kind  of  cotton  flannel), 


Of^ 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO    THE   PRESENT   TIME  II3 


calico,  heavy  hemp  cloth,  hemp  cloth  for  padding,  hemp  cloth 
for  cap  lining,  hemp  cloth  for  tent,  upper  shoe  leather,  sole 
shoe  leather  (surface),  sole  shoe  leather  (middle),  visors,  brim 
leather,  jowl  pieces,  metal  ceiling,  paddings,  zinc  eyelets,  braids, 
cotton  yarn,  upper  leather  sewing  yarn,  spikes. 

(b)  Foreign  Products. — Woolen  yam  for  hosiery,  fur,  spikes, 
sole,  sewing  yarn,  wooden  nails. 

(2)  Raw  Materials,     (a)  Domestic  Products. — ^Wool  grease, 
leather  oil. 

(b)  Foreign  Products. — Wool  grease,  leather  oil,  gelatine 
orange. 

(II)  Value  of  Articles 


Fiscal 

Materials 

Raw  Materials 

Total 

Grand 

Year 

Domestic 

Foreign 

Domestic 

Foreign 

Domestic 

Foreign 

Total 

1912 

1913  .... 

Yen 
4,475,820 
4,147,128 

Yen 
12,239 
13,041 

Yen 

11,731 

32,404 

Yen 
2,116 

4,OCK) 

Yen 
4,487,551 
4,179,532 

Yen 

14,355 
17,041 

Yen 
4,501,906 
4,196,573 

>p 


(III)  Equipment. — The  principal  items  in  military  equip- 
ment are  knapsacks,  haversacks,  lunch  boxes,  water  bottles 
and  portable  tents;  of  which  the  knapsacks  and  the  haver- 
sacks are  made  in  private  factories  to  which  a  part  of  the 
materials  for  making  is  delivered,  while  the  making  of  the 
lunch  boxes,  the  water  bottles  and  the  portable  tents  is  com- 
mitted to  the  arsenal. 

Outline  of  the  History  of  Equipment. — The  haversack  was 
patterned  in  September,  25  Meiji  (1892),  the  knapsack,  in 
July,  37  Meiji  (1904)  for  the  first  time,  and  parts  improved 
thereafter. 

The  knapsack  which  had  been  divided  into  several  kinds 
(for  infantry,  artillery,  engineer,  etc.)  was  made  uniform  and 
the  color  of  the  thong,  etc.,  was  changed  to  the  natural  color  of 
the  skin,  yellowish  brown.  The  material  of  lunch  box  and 
the  water  bottle  was  changed  to  aluminum,  in  November,  31 
Meiji  (1898),  heretofore  the  lunch  box  being  of  black  lac- 


114 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


quered  iron  plate,  and  the  water  bottle  being  of  glass  with  a 
cover  of  black  leather. 

In  January,  38  Meiji  (1905),  the  color  of  the  lunch  box  and 
the  water  bottle  was  changed  to  yellowish  brown. 

The  field  tent  was  patterned  in  March,  36  Meiji  (1903),  and 
in  October,  39  Meiji  (1906),  its  color  was  changed  to  yellowish 
brown. 
Table  Comparing  Value  of  Articles  Made  in  Successive  Fiscal  Years 


Articles" 


Knapsacks . 
Haversacks . 
Lunch  box. 
Canteens.  .  . 


43  Meiji  (1910) 

44  Meiji  (191 1) 

I  Taisho  (1912) 

Yen 

Yen 

Yen 

5,709 

73,690 

248,233 

14,784 

2,035 

1,212 

11,000 

3,000 

3,000 

28,358 

111,941 

111,941 

.  *  Field  tents  were  not  made  during  this  period. 

The  expenses  of  manufacture  during  the  last  three  fiscal 
years  are  as  follows : 

Yen 

43  Meiji    (1910) 59,851 

44  "        (1911) 190,666 

I  Taisho  (1912) 249,445 

Principal  Material  for  Manufacture  According  to  the  Places 

of  Supply 
Domestic  Products : 

Buckles  for  hemp   haversacks,   yellowish-brown   heavy 
hemp    cloth,    hemp    cloth   for   knapsack,    buckles   and 
boxes  for  knapsack,  posts  and  props  for  portable  tents. 
Foreign  Products: 

Aluminium,  goat  skins. 
Imports  from  Colonies: 

Fur  for  knapsack. 
The  number  of  the  principal  articles  of  equipment  bought  or 
manufactured  per  year  are,  in  round  numbers,  as  follows : 


Number 
Articles  for  a  Year 

Knapsacks 20,000 

Haversacks 33,ooo 

Lunch  boxes 10,000 


Canteens 9,000 

Portable  tents 17,000 


Remarks 
Bought  from  leather  manufacturers. 
Made  by  tailors  from  material  delivered. 
Manufacture   committed   to   the   Osaka 

Arsenal. 
Manufacture  committed   to  the   Tokyo 

Arsenal. 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   THE  PRESENT  TIME  II5 

Provisions 

The  experience  gained  in  the  Sino-Japanese  War  demon- 
strated the  necessity  of  the  manufacture  of  provisions  by  the 
government,  and  it  was  after  this  war  that  the  industry  was 
started.  Before  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  there  was  nothing 
worth  mentioning,  and  so  the  history  from  the  Sino-Japanese 
War  to  the  present  time  is  here  given  as  a  whole. 

In  March,  30  Meiji  (1897),  the  Mihtary  Central  Provision 
Department  was  established  in  Tokyo,  with  a  branch  at  Ujina, 
to  manufacture,  supply,  store,  supplement  and  examine  the 
provisions  needed  for  military  service. 

In  January,  31  Meiji  (1898),  the  canning  of  beef  was  started. 

In  December,  36  Meiji  (1903),  corn  cleaning  was  started  at 
the  Ujina  branch. 

In  August,  37  Meiji  (1904),  the  making  of  soy  extract  was 
started. 

In  September  of  the  same  year,  a  slaughter  house  was  built 
at  the  Central  Department,  and  slaughter  for  the  purpose  of 
canning  was  started. 

In  March  of  the  same  year,  the  Osaka  branch  of  the  Mili- 
tary Provision  Department  was  opened. 

In  August  of  the  same  year,  biscuit  making  was  started  in 
the  Central  Department. 

In  September,  44  Meiji  (191 1),  beef  canning  was  started  in 
the  Ujina  branch. 

In  January,  2  Taisho  (191 3),  biscuit  making  was  started  in 
the  Osaka  branch. 

In  February  of  the  same  year,  pickle  making  was  started  in 
the  Central  Department. 

Articles  made  in  the  department,  and  factories  at  the  pres- 
ent time  are  as  follows: 

Number  of 

Articles  or  Work  Factories                    Places 

Biscuits 2  Tokyo,  Osaka 

Canned  beef 2  Tokyo,  Hiroshima 

Soy  extract i  Tokyo 

Pickle I  Tokyo 

Rice  and  barley  cleaning I  Hiroshinxa 


Ii6 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


The  amounts  of  manufacture,  rate  of  increasing  manufactur- 
ing capacity  and  expenses  of  manufacture  for  several  years  are 
compared  as  follows: 


Table  Comparing 

Value  of  Manufactures, 

1908-1912 

Year 

Biscuits 

Canned 
Beef 

Salt 

Soy 
Extract 

Fukujin- 
zuke  " 

Cleaned 
Rice 

Cleaned 
Barley 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

Yen 
268,532 
268,136 
268,036 
307,500 
352,137 

Yen 
444,565 
456,341 
458,919 
236,500 
525,016 

Yen 
3,675 
3,675 
3,675 
20,925 

12,425 

Yen 
60,311 
60,458 
60,411 
34,450 
56,898 

Yen 
2,243 

Yen 
363,099 
385,949 
304,797 
442,155 
365,385 

Yen 

199,551 
90,277 
81,493 

144,606 

154,152 

»  A  kind  of  pickle. 

Rate  of  Increase  in  Manufacturing  Capacity,  1908-1912 


Year 

Biscuits 

Canned 
Beef 

Salt 

Soy 
Extract 

Fukujin- 
zuke* 

Cleaned 
Rice 

Cleaned 
Barley 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

100 
99 
99 

114 

131 

TOO 
102 
103 

53 
118 

100 
100 
100 
569 
337 

100 
100 
100 

57 
94 

TOO 

100 
106 

83 
121 
100 

100 

45 
40 
72 

77 

'  A  kind  of  pickle. 


Expenses  of  Manufacture,  1908-1912 
Year  Cost  of  Manufacture 

Yen 

41  Meiji  (1908) 777,083 

42  "      (1909) 788,610 

43  "      (1910) 791,041 

44  ;;   (1911) 599,375 

"^i  Taisho  }  (^912) 948,719 


Number  of  Workmen  Engaged  in  the  Provision  Industry,  1908-1912 

Year  Males  Females               Total 

41  Meiji  (1908) 31-727  31,245               62,972 

42  "       (1909) 47,090  47,504               94,594 

43  "       (1910) 53,428  49,101  102,529 

44  II       (1911) 63,412  60,103  123,515 

"^iTaishol^^^^^^ 68,820  65,619  134,439 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


117 


Average  number  per  day  of  the  workmen  at  the  present 
time  is  264  males,  202  females,  466  in  alL 

The  work  of  manufacture  is  simpler  than  that  of  any  other 
industry,  and  does  not  need  various  kinds  of  materials  as  in 
other  cases. 

Materials  needed  in  this  manufacture  according  to  places  of 
supply  are  shown  as  follows : 

(1)  Kind  of  Articles,  (i)  Manufactures,  (a)  Domestic 
Products. — Solid  salt,  powdered  salt,  paper  pouches,  wooden 
boxes,  ropes,  cotton  yarn,  straw  bags. 

(b)  Imports  from  Foreign  Countries. — Nails. 

(2)  Semi-manufactures,  (a)  Domestic  Products. — Plates  of 
abies  firma  (for  wooden  boxes) . 

(b)  Imports  from  Foreign  Countries. — Iron  plates. 

(3)  Raw  Materials,  (a)  Domestic  Products. — Beef,  wheat 
flour,  sugar,  soy,  sweet  ''sake,'"  rice  flour,  salt,  sesame,  pota- 
toes, vegetables  for  pickling. 

(b)  Imports  from  Foreign  Countries. — Hops,  tin,  lead, 
Indian  rubber,  varnish  for  painting,  shellac  for  painting, 
ammonia. 

(II)  Value  of  Articles 


Year 
(fiscal) 

Manufactures 

Semi- 
manufactures 

Raw  Materials 

Total 

Grand 
Total 

Domestic 

Foreign 

Domestic 

Foreign 

Domestic 

Foreign 

Domestic 

Foreign 

1912  . . 

1913  •  • 

Yen 
103,635 
133,418 

Yen 
229 
599 

Yen 
2.51S 
24,021 

Yen 
109,884 
111,358 

Yen 
756,205 
861,576 

Yen 
13.231 
16,922 

Yen 

862,355 

1,019,01s 

Yen 
123,344 
128,879 

Yen 

985.699 

1,147,894 

Supplement 
A  general  view  of  the  military  industry  has  been  given  above 
and  in  conclusion  tables  are  given  below  explaining  the  mili- 
tary industrial  engines  and  the  number  of  employes  in  military 
factories. 


Ii8 


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russo-japanese  war  to  the  present  time         121 

Industries  of  the  Navy 

Because  of  the  fact  that  all  the  European  countries  were 
keeping  strict  neutrality  during  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  the 
two  warships,  the  Katoh  and  the  Kashima,  which  were  almost 
completed  in  England,  could  not  be  sent  round  to  Japan,  and 
under  such  circumstances  it  was  of  course  impossible  to  import 
Jresh  war  vessels  from  foreign  countries.  Meanwhile,  Japan 
lost  ten  warships  and  torpedo-boat  destroyers  in  the  war  and 
was  deprived  of  much  of  her  naval  power.  Prompted  by  the 
need  of  making  up  these  losses  and  also  to  make  a  new  increase 
of  her  power,  she  then  began  to  build  warships  with  her  own 
materials  at  her  own  government  and  private  shipbuilding 
yards. 

In  Japan,  even  before  this  time,  the  construction  of  a  first- 
class  battleship  was  never  an  impossibility  as  far  as  equipment 
and  skill  are  concerned.  On  account  of  lack  of  materials  and 
other  reasons,  however,  it  was  absolutely  impossible  to  do  it  at 
the  same  cost  as  if  built  in  England ;  and  moreover  in  rapidity 
of  work,  Japan  could  not  but  be  unequal  to  such  countries  as 
England,  France,  Germany  or  America;  hence  there  was  a 
tendency  to  order  warships  from  foreign  builders.  But  as, 
under  the  circumstances,  there  was  no  time  to  consider  any 
such  difficulties,  necessary  arrangements  were  made  to  con- 
struct first-class  battleships  and  cruisers  at  the  Yokosuka  and 
Kure  arsenals,  and  cruisers,  dispatch  boats,  or  torpedo-boat 
destroyers  at  the  Sasebo  and  Maizuru  arsenals  and  seve;ral 
other  large  private  dockyards,  and  the  work  started  at  once. 

yhi£  may  be  called  the  third  extension  of  the  Japanese 
Nayy,  and  for  this  purpose  a  large  amount  of  naval  expendi- 
ture  waslncurred,  but  thanks  to  the  zeal  of  all  classes~of~the 
people,  the  task  was  at  last  finished,  and  the  long-sought-for 
ambition  of  procuring  war  implements  independently  of 
foreign  countries  was  realized.  It  ought  to  be  said  with 
exactness  that  the  38th  year  of  Meiji  made  a  new  epoch  in 
warship  building  in  the  Empire  of  Japan.  The  new  plan  was 
to  build  two  first-class  battleships  and  four  first-class  battle 
cruisers,  one  second-class  cruiser,  two  dispatch  boats,  and 


122  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

thirty-three  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  making  a  total  of  forty- 
two  ships;  and  the  estimated  cost  for  the  above  was  212,261,- 
055  yen.  These  vessels  were  all  completed  soon  after  the  war 
between  Japan  and  Russia  was  over.  From  the  experiences 
of  actual  warfare  gained  in  the  war,  considerable  improvement 
was  made  in  the  building  of  these  vessels.  The  principal  im- 
provements were  to  increase  the  displacement  as  much  as 
possible,  to  increase  the  number  of  the  ordnance  and  the 
calibre  of  the  same,  and  the  thickness  and  size  of  the  armor 
plates,  all  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the  displacement,  to 
increase  the  power  of  the  fish  torpedo  according  to  the  increase 
of  displacement,  at  the  same  time  decrease  it  in  inverse  pro- 
portion to  the  increased  power  of  the  ordnance,  to  increase  the 
speed  as  much  as  possible,  to  dispense  with  the  ram,  to  perfect 
the  means  of  protection  against  the  mechanical  mine,  to  con- 
struct a  powder  magazine  free  from  explosion  by  meteorologi- 
cal changes,  and  in  the  case  of  ships  built  capable  of  being 
fitted  up  as  auxiliary  cruisers,  to  place  important  parts  of  the 
steering  system  under  the  waterline,  and  to  provide  the  same 
with  necessary  protective  devices,  etc. 

After  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  this  plan  of  shipbuilding 
was  carried  out  in  one  ship  after  another,  and  all  were  finished 
with  success,  especially,  in  the  case  of  the  first-class  battleships 
and  armored  cruisers,  both  of  which,  the  former  of  about  20,- 
000  tons  and  the  latter  of  about  14,000  tons,  were  of  such  great 
size  that  there  were  hardly  any  to  compare  with  them  in  the 
world,  and  still  they  showed  unexpectedly  good  results.  It 
may  be  remarked  that  this  was  a  very  rapid  advance,  a  matter 
truly  worthy  of  congratulations  to  the  shipbuilding  industry 
of  Japan.  Since  the  completion  of  these  warships,  the  navy, 
seeing  the  necessity  of  further  enlargement  in  due  accordance 
with  the  extension  of  the  power  of  the  country,  has  continued 
to  build  new  large  ships,  and  already  launched  battleships 
of  30,000  tons.  The  estimated  expenditure  for  building 
these  new  vessels,  so  far  approved  by  the  Imperial  Diet,  has 
amounted  to  84,644,124  yen. 

Following  is  a  summary  of  the  development  of  the  naval 
industry  in  this  period: 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME  1 23 

Warships  and  Torpedo-boat  Destroyers 

(I)  Warships. — In  February,  37  Meiji  (1904),  the  third- 
class  cruiser  Tsushima  was  completed  at  the  Kure  Naval 
Arsenal.  Keel  laid  October,  34  Meiji  (1901);  displacement, 
3,366  tons;  horse  power,  9,400;  speed,  20  knots;  equipped  with 
6  6"  quick-firing  main  guns,  10  12  pounder  quick-firing  side 
guns,  4  47  mm.  auxiliary  guns;  3  searchlights,  but  with  no 
torpedo  tube,  like  the  sister  ship  Niitaka. 

In  September,  37  Meiji  (1904),  the  third-class  cruiser 
Otowa  was  completed  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  Keel 
laid  January,  36  Meiji  (1903);  displacement,  3,000  tons;  horse 
power,  10,000;  speed,  21  knots.  Main  guns,  2  6"  quick- 
firing  guns;  side  guns,  6  4.7"  quick-firing  guns;  auxiliary,  4 
quick-firing  12  pounders  and  2  Maxim  guns;  3  searchlights. 
This  ship  was  336  tons  less  in  displacement  compared  with 
the  Niitaka  or  the  Tsushima.  In  arms  and  protective  deck 
she  was  also  somewhat  lighter  than  those  two  ships,  but  the 
weight  so  saved  was  added  to  the  engines  to  increase  her  horse 
power,  which  raised  her  speed  to  21  knots.  Like  her  sister 
ships  she  was  built  without  a  torpedo  tube.  She  had  in  some 
respects  a  slight  resemblance  to  a  despatch  boat,  though 
built  for  a  protected  cruiser.  It  took  only  twenty  months 
to  build  this  ship,  the  quickest  record  ever  made  in  this 
country.  Of  course,  being  in  war-time,  it  owed  much  to  the 
industrious  efforts  of  all  of  those  engaged  in  the  work,  from 
the  overseeing  officers  to  the  workmen,  but  at  the  same  time 
it  is  enough  to  show  what  a  rapid  development  was  being  made 
in  the  shipbuilding  industry  of  Japan. 

In  January,  40  Meiji  (1907),  the  armored  cruiser  Tsukuba 
was  completed  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  Keel  laid  Janu- 
ary, 38  Meiji  (1905);  displacement,  13,750;  horse  power, 
23,260;  speed,  21.5  knots.  Guns  carried:  4  12"  quick-firing 
main  guns;  12  6"  and  3  4.7"  side  guns;  2  quick-firing  12 
pounders,  and  4  Maxim  guns  as  auxiliaries.  The  ship  has  also 
3  18"  torpedo  tubes  and  3  searchlights.  The  engine  is  of  the 
twin-screw,  surface-condensing,  four-cylinder,  triple-expan- 
sion type,  and  has  a  forced  lubricating  arrangement.     This 


124  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

ship  was  intended  to  be  a  sister  ship  to  the  armored  cruiser 
Ikoma,  and  was  not  only  the  first  armored  cruiser  built  in 
Japan,  but  was  also  the  first  ship  for  which  an  engine  of  20,000 
hcH;ge^  power  was  ever  made  in  this  country^ 

It  was  about  forty-five  years  since  warship  building  had 
"commenced  in  Japan,  and  in  this  time  more  than  thirty  ships 
were  built;  but  then  the  largest  ship  ever  built  was  the  Ha- 
shidate  of  4,200  tons,  and  no  armored  battleship  or  large-size 
cruiser  had  yet  been  built.  Now  the  Tsukuba,  a  large-size 
armored  warship,  was  completed  in  but  two  years  after  her 
keel  laying;  and,  except  England,  no  country  in  Europe  or 
America,  who  was  Japan's  elder  in  these  matters,  had  ever 
before  completed  such  a  large  ship  in  such  a  short  time.  It 
is  a  fact  that  the  construction  of  the  ship  took  place  during 
the  war,  and  the  work  had  to  be  pushed  for  early  comple- 
tion ;  but,  still,  to  have  built  such  a  big  ship  without  experience, 
and  her  trial  made  with  every  success,  shows  well  enough  the 
wonderful  development  in  the  shipbuilding  industry  of  the 
Empire. 

In  March,  40  Meiji  (1907),  the  armored  cruiser  Ikoma  was 
completed  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  Keel  laid  in  March,  38 
Meiji  (1905);  displacement,  13,750  tons;  horse  power,  20,- 
500;  speed,  21.75  knots;  engines  and  boilers,  the  same  as  the 
Tsukuba;  guns  about  the  same,  the  only  difference  being  that 
while  the  Tsukuba  has  2  quick-firing  12  pounders  among  her 
auxiliary  guns  the  Ikoma  has  2  3"  guns. 

Heretofore  it  was  customary  to  construct  warships  with 
ram  heads,  which  could  be  used  as  weapon  in  time  of  battle, 
but  of  late,  owing  to  the  improvement  in  guns,  it  became  al- 
most useless,  and  moreover,  in  practice  it  was  proved  to  have 
no  advantage  whatever,  and  was  only  apt  to  injure  a  friendly 
ship. 

Therefore,  in  building  the  Tsukuba  and  the  Ikoma,  for  the 
first  time  the  ram  head  was  done  away  with,  and  the  bow  was 
made  like  that  of  an  ordinary  sailing  ship.     The  example  was 
followed  for  all  subsequent  Japanese  warships. 
^  The  protective  deck  of  the  above  two  ships  is  i|"  thick  at 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO    THE    PRESENT   TIME  1 25 

the  flat  central  parts,  and  2"  at  the  sloping  sides,  which  is 
diminished  to  \\"  at  the  two  ends,  fore  and  aft;  the  water- 
line  armor  belt  is  7"  at  the  center  and  4''  at  the  fore  and  aft 
ends ;  so  the  method  of  the  protection  is  absolute. 

As  a  rule  an  armored  cruiser  aims  at  high  speed,  and  its 
fighting  capacity  is  therefore  far  inferior  to  that  of  a  battle- 
ship. It  is  the  same  the  world  over,  and  usually  the  main 
guns  carried  by  such  a  ship  are  8"  to  10",  but  the  above  two 
ships  took  12"  guns  as  their  main  guns  and  were  besides 
equipped  with  many  6"  guns  as  auxiliaries,  so  that  their  fight- 
ing capacity  was  quite  equal  to  that  of  battleships  of  15,000  to 
16,000  tons. 

In  March,  43  Meiji  (1910),  the  first-class  battleship  Satsuma 
was  completed  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  Keel  for  the 
same  was  laid  in  May,  38  Meiji  (1905);  displacement,  19,150 
tons;  horse  power,  17,500;  speed,  18.25  knots.  Main  guns 
are  4  12"  and  12  10",  and  side  guns  12  4.7".  She  has  5  tor- 
pedo tubes.  The  engines  are  vertical,  four-cylinder,  triple-ex- 
pansion, and  the  boilers  are  of  the  Miyabara  water  tube  - 
system.  

Compared  to  the  well-known  British  warship! Dreadnought,  j 
the  Satsuma  was  far  behind  in  speed,  but  in  size  she  was  larger 
by  1 ,2O0^ona>_andiiad-^tb€feforc  the  honor  of  being  the  largest 
Warship  in  the  world.  That  such  a  large  ship  was  launched  in 
but  one  year  and  seven  months,  at  a  dockyard  where  they  had 
never  had  experience  in  a  big  work  like  this,  was  another  re- 
markable instance  of  the  advance  made  in  warship  building  in 
Japan. 

In  March,  43  Meiji  (1910),  the  first-class  battleship  Aki 
was  completed  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  Laid  down  in 
March,  39  Meiji  (1906);  displacement,  19,800  tons;  horse 
power,  25,000;  speed,  2o|  knots.  Guns  carried:  4  12"  main 
guns,  12  10"  side  guns,  8  6",  8  3",  4  3"  short  guns,  as  auxiliary 
guns;  5  18"  torpedo  tubes. 

Owing  to  her  construction  having  begun  later  than  that  of 
the  Satsuma,  some  improvements  were  made  in  this  ship  after 
the  latest  example  of  the  advanced  shipbuilding  of  other  coun- 


126  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL    SURVEY 

tries.  The  principal  of  these  are  the  adoption  of  the  turbine  of 
the  Curtis  patent,  and  increase  in  horse  power,  speed,  guns, 
etc.  This  having  added  to  the  weight  of  the  ship  naturally  in- 
creased the  displacement,  making  it  600  tons  more  than  the 
Satsuma. 

The  Aki  was  even  more  powerful  than  the  Satsuma.  At  the 
time  of  the  beginning  of  construction  she  was  looked  upon  as 
one  of  the  largest  ships  in  the  world,  and  at  that,  she  was 
launched  in  only  one  year  from  her  keel  laying  and  therefore 
broke  the  record  that  had  been  made  hy  the  Satsuma  some  time 
back.  This  owed  much  to  the  perfect  and  efficient  ship- 
building organization,  but  experience  also  had  a  great  deal  to 
do  with  it. 

In  November,  42  Meiji  (1909),  the  armored  cruiser  i^wrama 
was  completed  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  The  ship 
was  laid  down  in  August,  38  Meiji  (1905);  displacement, 
14,500  tons;  horse  power,  22,500;  speed,  20  knots.  Main 
guns,  4  12"  quick-firing;  side  guns,  8  8"  quick-firing;  auxiliary 
guns,  14  4.7"  quick-firing;  she  also  has  3  18"  torpedo  tubes. 
This  vessel  was  built  as  a  sister  ship  to  the  Ibuki. 

In  November,  42  Meiji  (1909),  the  armored  cruiser  Ibuki 
was  completed  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  Keel  laid  May,  40 
Meiji  (1907);  displacement,  14,636  tons;  horse  power,  24,- 
000;  speed,  21  knots;  main  guns,  4  12"  quick-firing;  side  guns, 
8  8"  quick-firing ;  14  4.7"  quick-firing  auxiliary  guns  and  4  3" 
short  guns;  3  18"  torpedo  tubes. 

These  two  sister  ships  were  a  great  improvement  over  the 
Tsukuba  or  the  Ikoma,  but,  if  compared  to  the  Mikasa  or 
the  Shikishima,  their  protective  quality  is  somewhat  lower, 
but  their  speed  and  offensive  quality  are  much  superior. 

The  Kurama  was  launched  in  twelve  months  after  her  keel 
laying,  and  the  Ibuki  in  only  six  months.  This  is  due  to  noth- 
ing but  the  full  and  free  use  of  the  shipbuilding  cranes,  and  the 
experience  gained  from  the  construction  of  the  Tsukuba  and 
the  Ikoma,  a  fact  that  may  be  remarked  as  having  broken  the 
world's  record  in  that  industry. 

In    May,   43    Meiji    (1910),    the    second-class    protected 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE    PRESENT   TIME  12/ 

cruiser  Tone  was  completed  at  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal.  Her 
keel  was  laid  in  January,  38  Meiji  (1905).  The  design  was  to 
build  her  of  the  Yoshino  type,  with  some  improvements  added 
thereto.  Displacement,  14,100  tons;  horse  power,  15,000; 
speed,  23  knots.  The  engines  are  of  a  twin  screw,  surface 
condenser,  vertical,  four  cylinder  and  triple  expansion  system; 
16  Miyabara  boilers  used.  Main  guns,  4  6"  quick-firing;  side 
guns,  12  4.7"  quick-firing;  auxiliary  guns,  2  quick-firing 
12  pounders;  3  18"  torpedo  tubes.  This  is  the  very  first 
warship  built  at  the  Sasebo  Dockyard.  The  difference  in  this 
ship  from  the  Yoshino  is  an  increase  of  speed  and  the  reduction 
of  two  6"  guns.  Since  the  building  of  the  warship  Niitaka, 
torpedo  tubes  had  been  done  away  with  in  protected  cruisers, 
but  in  the  Tone  their  use  was  revived,  and  she  was  equipped 
with  three. 

In  July,  41  Meiji  (1908),  the  dispatch  boat  Yodo  was  com- 
pleted at  the  Kawasaki  Dockyard.  Keel  laid  October,  39 
Meiji  (1906);  displacement,  1,250  tons;  horse  power,  6,500; 
speed,  22  knots.  Engine  and  boiler,  same  as  the  Tone.  Main 
guns,  4  4.7"  quick-firing;  side  guns,  4  quick-firing  12  pounders; 
2  18"  torpedo  tubes.  This  ship  is  single  masted  and  looks  like 
a  large  size  torpedo-boat  destroyer.  Being  intended  for  a 
dispatch  boat,  she  was  built  with  more  consideration  for  her 
speed  than  for  her  arms. 

In  September,  41  Meiji  (1908),  the  despatch  boat  Mogami 
was  completed  at  the  Mitsubishi  Dockyard.  Keel  laid  March, 
35  Meiji  (1902);  displacement,  1,350  tons;  horse  power, 
8,000;  speed,  23  knots.  Guns  carried:  2  4.7"  quick-firing 
main  guns;  4  3"  side  guns;  2  18"  torpedo  tubes.  This  dis- 
patch boat  may  be  spoken  of  as  a  sister  ship  of  the  Yodo,  but 
she  is  a  foot  wider,  120  tons  more  in  displacement,  1,500  tons 
more  in  actual  horse  power,  and  a  knot  more  in  speed,  than 
the  Yodo.  The  greatest  difference  between  the  two  is  in  their 
engines.  While  ordinary  engines  are  used  in  the  Yodo,  Par- 
son's turbine  was  adopted  for  the  Mogami,  which  is  the  first 
warship  in  the  Japanese  Navy  furnished  with  the  new  engine. 

In  November,  44  Meiji  (191 1),  the  gunboat  Toha  was  built 


128  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL    SURVEY 

at  the  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal.  Laid  down  July,  44  Meiji; 
displacement,  250  tons;  horse  power,  1,400;  engine,  triple- 
screw,  vertical,  and  double-expansion;  boiler,  Miyabara's 
system. 

In  March,  45  Meiji  (1912),  the  battleship  Kawachi  was 
completed  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.  Laid  down  April, 
42  Meiji  (1909);  displacement,  20,800  tons;  horse  power, 
25,000;  engine  adopted,  twin  screw  Curtis's  turbine;  boiler, 
Miyabara  type,  16  in  number. 

In  July,  45  Meiji  (.1912),  the  battleship  Settsuwas  completed 
at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal.  Keel  laid  January,  42  Meiji 
(1909);  displacement,  21,295  tons;  horse  power,  25,000; 
engine  adopted,  twin-screw  Curtis's  turbine;  boiler,  Miya- 
bara's system ,  same  number  as  the  Kawachi. 

In  April,  45  Meiji  (1912),  the. second-class  cruiser  Chikuma 
was  completed  at  the  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal.  Keel  laid  May, 
43,  Meiji  (1910);  displacement,  4,950  tons;  horse  power, 
22,500;  engine,  Curtis's  turbine  type;  boiler,  navy  system. 

In  June,  45  Meiji  (1912),  the  cruiser  Hirado  was  completed 
at  the  Kawasaki  Dockyard.  Keel  laid  in  August,  43  Meiji 
(1910);  displacement,  5,200  tons;  horse  power,  22,500; 
engine  adopted,  Curtis's  turbine;  boiler,  navy  system,  newly 
adopted  instead  of  Miyabara's,  which  had  been  in  exclusive 
use  for  some  time,  16  in  number. 

In  July,  45  Meiji  (191 2),  the  cruiser  Yahagi  was  completed 
at  the  Mitsubishi  Dockyard.  Keel  laid  in  June,  43  Meiji 
(1910) ;  displacement,  4,950  tons;  horse  power,  22,500;  engine, 
Curtis's  turbine  type;  boiler,  navy  system. 

In  November,  i  Taisho  (191 2),  the  gunboat  Saga  was  built 
at  the  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal.  Her  keel  was  laid  in  January, 
45  Meiji  (1912);  displacement,  785  tons;  horsepower,  1,600; 
engine,  twin-screw,  vertical,  triple-expansion;  boiler,  navy 
system. 

The  armored  cruiser  Hiyei  is  now  under  equipment  at  the 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal.     Laid  down  in  November,  44  Meiji 

(191 1 ).     Launched  November,  i  Taisho  (191 2).     She  has  a 

displacement  of  27,500  tons,  and  64,000  horse  power;  engines 

jised  are  of  Parson's  turbine  system,  which  has  never  been  used 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME  1 29 

before  except  for  the  Mo  garni;  boilers,  of  the  navy  system. 
5oth  in  displacement  and  armament  she  is  the  largest  ship 
ever  buiTtT^iKl  when  compleLed  will  be  the  leadmg  power~or 
the  armored  criirsefs'm  the  Japanese  Navy.  The  resurt^wTtlT^ 
which  the  work  on  this  ship  may  be  finished,  therefore,  will  be 
the  touchstone  of  development  in  the  warship  building  of 
Japan. 

The  armored  cruiser  Haruna  is  under  equipment  at  the 
Kawasaki  Dockyard.  Keel  laid  in  March,  45  Meiji  (1912). 
Launched  in  December,  2  Taisho  (191 3).  Her  displacement 
is  to  be  27,500  tons;  horse  power,  64,000 ;  engines  to  be  of  Cur- 
tis's  turbine,  and  boilers  of  Miyabara  type.  This  cruiser 
is  expected  to  be  completed  by  April,  4  Taisho  (191 5). 

The  armored  cruiser  Kirishima  is  now  under  equipment  at 
the  Mitsubishi  Dockyard.  Keel  laid  in  March,  45  Meiji 
(191 2).  Launched  in  November,  2  Taisho  (191 3).  Displace- 
ment to  be  27,500  tons,  and  horse  power,  64,000;  engines  to  be 
Parson's  turbine,  and  boilers  of  navy  system.  This  cruiser  is 
a  sister  ship  to  the  Haruna,  and  is  expected  to  be  completed  by 
April,  4  Taisho  (191 5). 

The  battleship  Fuso  is  under  equipment  at  the  Kure  Na- 
val Arsenal.  Keel  laid  March,  45  Meiji  (1912).  Launching 
March,  3  Taisho  (1914).  Her  displacement  is  to  be  30,600  tons, 
and  horse  power  40,000.  The  engines  are  to  be  of  quadruple- 
screw  Curtis's  turbine,  and  the  boilers  of  Miyabara  type. 

The  above  three  ships  are  at  present  under  equipment,  and 
therefore  of  their  guns  and  other  equipments  no  definite  men- 
tion is  as  yet  possible,  but  in  their  displacement  and  horse 
power,  they  are  the  largest  ships  ever  attempted  since  the 
beginning  of  the  Japanese  Navy,  and  considering  the  fact  th< 
such  giants  of  battleships  have  been  launched  with  success,  it" 
-4s~Tro1re  evident  that  an  extraordinary  development  has  been 
made  in  the  industry  of  warship  building  in  Japan  both  i] 
the  government  and  the  private  dockyards. 

Besides  the  ships  already  mentioned,  it  has  been  planned  to" 
build  battleship  "No.  4"  at  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal, 
"No.  5"  at  the  Kawasaki  Dockyard,  and  "No.  6"  at  the  Mit- 
subishi Dockyard ;  and  they  are  expected  to  be  laid  down  very'' 
10 


130  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

soon.  According  to  their  designs,  these  ships  are  to  displace 
30,800  tons;  engines  for  "  No.  4"  and  "  No.  5  "  to  be  of  Curtis's 
turbine,  and  those  for  "No.  6,"  Parson's  turbine;  and  boilers 
for " N0.4"  to  be  of  Miyabara  type,and  for  " No. 5 "  and  "  No. 
6,"  the  Yarrow  type. 

(II)  Torpedo-boat  Destroyers. — The  torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers built  in  this  period  are  39  in  number,  from  the  third- 
class  torpedo-boat  destroyer  Fubuki,  completed  in  February, 
38  Meiji  (1905), at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal,  to  the  second-class 
destroyer  Tac/^iftawa, completed  in  June, 45  Meiji  (191 2), at  the 
Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal.  The  building  of  these  torpedo-boat 
destroyers  will  be  presented  here  only  in  a  brief  manner ;  as  for 
the  chronological  particulars,  they  will  be  found  in  the  table 
appearing  on  subsequent  pages. 

Generally  speaking,  these  torpedo-boat  destroyers  were 
built  in  five  periods,  from  the  second  construction  to  the  sixth, 
but  we  do  not  call  the  first  of  the  five  periods  or  constructions 
the  first,  but  serially  call  it  the  "second,"  as  there  was  already 
a  first  lot  of  torpedo-boat  destroyers  built  before  this  in  36 
Meiji   (1903). 

The  torpedo-boat  destroyers  built  in  the  second  construc- 
tion are  the  Ariake,  the  Fubuki  and  the  Arare;  both  their  keel 
laying  and  completion  took  place  during  the  Russo-Japanese 
War,  37  Meiji  (1904).  All  of  them  were  built  at  the  Kure 
Naval  Arsenal  and  are  third-class  torpedo-boat  destroyers  of 
370  tons.  The  time  spent  in  their  construction  varied  from 
five  months  to  eight.  They  were  built  after  the  manner  of  the 
Harusame,  and  all  showed  excellent  results  in  their  trials. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  in  the  37th  year 
of  Meiji  (1904)  a  plan  was  decided  upon  in  which  twenty- 
five  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  the  third-class  destroyer  Kami- 
kaze and  others,  were  to  be  built;  and  the  work  having  been 
apportioned  among  the  Yokosuka,  Kure,  Sasebo,  and  Maizuru 
Arsenals,  and  three  private  dockyards,  it  was  forthwith  started. 
The  engines  of  these  destroyers  are,  like  those  of  the  destroyers 
built  in  the  second  construction,  of  the  same  kind  as  used  in 
ships  of  the  Harusame  class,  but  in  some  particulars  they  are 
differently  made,  i.e.,  instead  of  the  oil  filter  of  the  forced  sys- 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE    PRESENT   TIME  I3I 

tern,  one  that  can  be  worked  by  gravity  was  used ;  the  main 
feed  pipe  in  the  boiler  room  was  removed  to  the  engine  room ; 
the  number  of  fire  engines  increased ;  bilge  pumps  furnished  in- 
dependently, the  number  of  blowers  increased,  etc.  The  ar- 
mament was  also  altered  in  these  ships  by  placing  short  12 
pounders  instead  of  57  m.m.  quick-firing  guns  with  which  ships 
of  the  Harusame  class  are  equipped.  The  boilers  too  are  of 
the  navy  system,  like  those  of  the  Harusame,  but  the  height  of 
the  same  was  lessened,  so  that  they  will  not  project  above  the 
deck  and  will  thus  be  protected  from  discovery  by  the  enemy's 
searchlight  thrown  upon  the  jutting. 

The  building  of  these  twenty-five  destroyers  were  distrib- 
uted as  follows: 

The  Kamikaze,  Hatsushimo,  Yayoi,  Kisaragi,  Hibiki,  Wak- 
aba  and  Hatsuyuki  (7  boats)  to  Yokosuka  Arsenal. 

The  Ushio  and  Nenohi  (2  boats)  to  Kure  Arsenal. 

The  Yugure,  Yudachi,  Mikazuki  and  Nowaki  (4  boats)  to 
Sasebo  Arsenal. 

The  Oikaze  and  Yunagi  (2  boats)  to  Maizuru  Arsenal. 

The  Shiratsuyu,  Shirayuki,  Matsukaze  and  Shirotae  (4 
boats)  to  Mitsubishi  Dockyard. 

The  Asakaze,  Harukaze,  Shigiire  and  Hatsuharu  (4  boats) 
to  Kawasaki  Dockyard.  v^ 

The  Asatsuyu  and  Hay  ate  (2  boats)  to  Osaka  Iron  Works  •^ 

Owing  to  the  war  the  building  of  these  destroyers  was 
finished  with  expedition.  It  was  not  quite  two  years  since 
any  torpedo-boat  destroyers  had  been  built  in  Japan,  and  the 
experience  in  the  work  being  therefore  limited,  great  difficul- 
ties were  encountered  in  the  present  work,  but  nevertheless 
most  of  the  boats  were  completed  in  about  one  year  from  the 
keel  laying,  and  all  of  them  gave  quite  satisfactory  results 
in  their  trials.  An  exceptional  success  was  the  Ushio,  which 
was  built  at  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal ;  her  keel  was  laid  on  the 
1 2th  of  April,  38  Meiji  (1905),  and  she  was  completed  on  the 
15th  of  July  of  the  same  year,  three  months  later.  The  pri- 
vate dockyard,  the  Osaka  Iron  Works,  took  about  twenty 
months  to  complete  its  order,  but  considering  the  fact  that  it 
Jiad  no  experience  in  the  work,  it  may  be  said  that  the  time 


132  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

made  by  it  was  rather  a  success.  The  time  at  which  all  of 
these  ships  were  completed  varies  from  July,  38  Meiji  (1905), 
to  March,  40  Meiji  (1907).  At  all  events,  the  building  of  these 
torpedo-boat  destroyers  would  well  deserve  special  mention 
as  an  advance  made  in  the  warship  building  of  Japan. 

The  destroyers  Shigure  and  Asatsuyu  showed  a  speed  of  over 
29.7  knots,  the  best  shown  of  all  the  torpedo-boat  destroyers. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  the  official  trial  of  the  de- 
stroyer Shigure:  Displacement,  376.5  tons;  boiler  pressure,  216 
pounds;  engine  pressure,  203  pounds;  revolution,  390;  horse 
power,  6,416;  speed,  29.73  knots. 

In  May,  38  Meiji  (1905),  while  the  war  with  Russia  was  go- 
ing on,  the  fourth  construction  of  torpedo-boat  destroyers  was 
decided  upon,  and  orders  were  given  to  private  companies 
to  build  four  destroyers,  as  follows: 

The  Uzuki,  to  the  Kawasaki  Dockyard. 

The  Minazuki,  to  the  Mitsubishi  Dockyard. 

The  Nagatsuki  and  Kikuzuki,  to  the  Uraga  Dock  Company. 

Although  the  engines  of  these  four  ships  were  on  the  whole 
the  same  as  those  of  the  ships  made  in  the  third  construction,, 
some  further  improvements  were  made.  For  instance,  the 
main  feed  pipes  which  had  been  removed  to  the  engine  room 
(from  the  boiler  room)  in  the  case  of  the  twenty-five  ships  al- 
ready mentioned  were  in  this  case  again  placed  in  the  boiler 
room  as  in  ships  of  the  Harusame  class;  also  the  double  bar 
hollow  link  hitherto  used  for  the  apparatus  for  starting  the 
engine  was  changed  to  a  double  bar  solid  link,  as  in  practice  it 
was  found  that  the  former  was  inconvenient  for  regulation  and 
not  in  good  working  order. 

As  to  the  boilers,  they  were  fitted  up  with  water  tubes  of 
the  navy  system,  and  compared  with  those  of  the  ships 
of  the  Harusame  class,  were  somewhat  improved,  like 
those  of  the  ships  made  in  the  third  construction. 

All  of  the  four  ships  gave  satisfactory  results  in  their  of- 
ficial trials ;  especially  in  the  cases  of  the  Uzuki  and  the 
Minatsuki  the  speed  reached  above  29.8  knots.  They  were 
completed  between  October,  39  Meiji  (1906)  and  September,. 
40  Meiji  (1907). 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE    PRESENT   TIME  1 33 

In  December,  39  Meiji  (1906),  three  ships  named  Uranami, 
Isonami  and  Ayanami  were  decided  upon  to  be  built  as  the 
fifth  construction  of  torpedo-boat  destroyers  of  domestic 
building  at  the  Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal,  and  work  was  begun  in 

40  Meiji  (1907).  The  construction,  arms,  engines  and  boilers 
of  these  three  ships  had  many  novel  features  of  improvement 
learned  from  the  experience  of  actual  warfare  in  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War.     The  ships  were  launched  in  40  Meiji  (1907), 

41  Meiji  (1908)  and  42  Meiji  (1909). 

The  sixth  construction  of  torpedo-boat  destroyers  at  the 
domestic  yards  was  carried  on  from  42  Meiji  (1909)  to  45 
Meiji  (1912). 

The  Umikaze,  a  first-class  torpedo-boat  destroyer  of  1,224 
tons  displacement  and  20,500  horse  power  was  completed  in 
September,  44  Meiji  (191 1),  at  the  Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal. 
Her  keel  was  laid  in  November,  42  Meiji  (1909). 

The  Yamakaze,  a  first-class  torpedo-boat  destroyer,  was 
completed  in  October,  44  Meiji  (191 1),  at  the  Mitsubishi 
Dockyard.  She  has  a  displacement  of  1,150  tons,  and  20,500 
horse  power,  and  was,  like  the  Umikaze,  one  of  the  largest  de- 
stroyers ever  made  in  Japan. 

The  Sakura,  a  second-class  destroyer  was  completed  in 
May,  45  Meiji  (1912),  at  the  Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal.  She 
was  laid  down  in  March,  44  Meiji  (191 1),  and  has  a  displace- 
ment of  678  tons  and  9,500  horse  power. 

The  Tachibana,  a  second-class  destroyer,  was  completed  in 
June,  45  Meiji  (1912),  at  the  Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal.  Her 
keel  was  laid  down  in  April,  44  Meiji  (191 1).  Displacement, 
680  tons;  horse  power,  9,500. 

These  four  destroyers  were  the  largest  of  the  kind  ever  built 
in  Japan.  They  had  displacement  and  horse  power  two  or 
three  times  as  big  as  those  built  before  them,  and  were  fur- 
nished with  up-to-date  arms,  engines  and  boilers.  They  gave 
unexpectedly  satisfactory  results  in  their  official  trial;  es- 
pecially in  their  speed  a  general  advancement  was  manifest. 

Although  warship  building  in  Japan  had  made  phenomenal 
progress  after  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  the  building  of  such 
large  destroyers  as  these  was  unknown  in  this  country  before 


134 


MILITARY   industries:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


this  time;  and  it  is  worth  commending  as  another  striking  ad- 
vancement achieved  in  naval  construction  in  Japan,  that  the 
navy,  finding  from  its  latest  experience  the  necessity  of  pre- 
paring itself  with  large  destroyers  as  well  as  with  large  battle- 
ships, built  at  a  leap,  and  with  good  success,  destroyers  well 
above  a  thousand  tons. 

(Ill)  Supplement. — The  following  is  a  chronological  table 
of  warships  and  torpedo-boat  destroyers  built  at  domestic 
dockyards  in  this  period: 

Chronological  Table  of  Construction  of  Warships  and  Torpedo-boat 

Destroyers 

(From  the  Russo-Japanese  War  to  the  Present  Time) 


Name 

Kind  and  Class 

Where  Built 

Construction  » 

Displace- 
ment 
(Tons) 

Date  of 
Completion 

Satsuma . . . 

Battleship 

Yokosuka  Nav.  Arsnl 

Steel,  dble,  steam 

I9,IS0 

Mar.,   1910 

Kurama . . . 

Battle  cruiser 

*' 

" 

14,600 

Feb.,    191 1 

Kawachi. . . 

Battleship 

" 

" 

20,800 

Mar.,   1912 

Hiei 

Battle  cruiser 

" 

Steel,  quad,  steam 

27,000 

Nov.,   1912 

No.  4 

Battleship 

** 

Steel,  dble,  steam 

30,800 

Tsukuba. . . 

Battle  cruiser 

Kure  Naval  Arsenal 

" 

13,750 

Jan.,     1907 

Ikoma 

'* 

" 

" 

13,750 

Feb.,    1907 

Ibuki 

'* 

*• 

" 

14,600 

Nov.,   1909 

Aki 

Battleship 

** 

" 

19,800 

Mar.,   191 1 

Settsu 

" 

" 

" 

21,295 

July,    191a 

Fuso 

*' 

" 

Steel,  quad,  steam 

30,600 

Mar.,   1914 

Tone 

2d  class  cruiser 

Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal 

" 

4,100 

May,    1910 

Chikuma  .  . 

" 

" 

4.950 

Apr.,    1912 

Toba 

Gunboat 

" 

Steel,  triple,  steam 

250 

Nov.,   191 1 

Saga 

"          .. 

" 

Steel,  dble,  steam 

785 

Nov.,  191a 

Yodo 

Dispatch  boat 

Kawasaki  Dockyard 

" 

1,250 

July,    1908 

Hirato 

2d  class  cruiser 

'• 

" 

4.950 

June,    191a 

Haruna. . .  . 

Battle  cruiser 

" 

" 

27.500 

Apr.,    1915 

No.  5 

Battleship 

" 

" 

30,800 

Building 

Mogami .  . . 

Dispatch  boat 

Mitsubishi  Dockyard 

" 

1,350 

Sept.,  1908 

Yahagi .... 

2d  class  cruiser 

" 

" 

4.950 

July,    1912 

Kirishima. . 

Battle  cruiser 

** 

" 

27.500 

Apr.,    191S 

No.  6 

Battleship 

'* 

" 

30,800 

Building 

Ariake 

3d  class  destroyer 

Yokosuka  Nav.  Arsnl 

" 

375 

Mar.,  1 90s 

Kamikaze. . 

" 

" 

375 

Aug.,    190S 

Hatsushimo 

'* 

" 

" 

375 

Aug.,    190S 

Yayoi 

" 

" 

** 

375 

Sept.,  1905 

Kisaragi .  . . 

** 

" 

** 

375 

Oct.,     190S 

Wakaba .  .  . 

*• 

" 

375 

Feb.,    1906 

Hatsuyuki . 

" 

" 

375 

May,    1906 

Hibiki 

" 

** 

375 

Sept.,  1906 

Fubuki 

Kure  Naval  Arsenal 

375 

Feb.,    1 90s 

•"Steel"  denotes  material  used  for  the  ship's  hull;  "double,"  "triple"  and  "quad"  refer  to  the 
number  of  propellers;  "steam,"  steam  power. 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


135 


Chronological  Table  of  Construction  of  Warships  and   Torpedo-boat 
Destroyers — Continued 

(From  the  Russo-Japanese  War  to  the  Present  Time) 


Name 

Kind  a 

nd  Class              Where  Built 

Construction* 

Displace- 
ment 
(Tons) 

Date  of 
Completion 

Arare 

3d  clasf 

cruiser        Kure  Naval  Arsenal 

Steel,  dble  steam 

375 

May.    190S 

Ushiwo.  .  .  . 

" 

375 

July.    1905 

Nenohi 

.                                    it 

*' 

375 

Oct.,     1 90s 

Yudachi.  .. 

'                   Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal 

** 

375 

July,     1906 

Mikazuki .  . 

" 

375 

Sept.,   1906 

Yugure 

*                                     '* 

** 

375 

May,    1906 

Nowaki .... 

•                                    " 

" 

375 

Nov.,   1906 

Oikaze .... 

Maizuru  Nav.  Arsenal 

" 

375 

Aug.,    1906 

Yunagi. .  .  . 

" 

375 

Dec,    1906 

Uranami. . . 

'                                     '• 

'• 

375 

Nov.,   1908 

Isonami .  .  . 

'                                     " 

" 

375 

Feb.,    1909 

Ayanami . . . 

3d  class 

destroyer 

•* 

375 

June,    1909 

Umikaze. . . 

1st  clas 

s                                    " 

Steel,  triple,  steam 

1,224 

Sept..  191 1 

Sakura.  .  .  . 

2d  class 

" 

" 

678 

May,    1912 

Tachibana . 

" 

" 

" 

680 

June,    1912 

Asakaze.  .  . 

3d  class 

" 

" 

375 

Feb.,    1906 

Hatsuhana. 

' 

Kawasaki  Dockyard 

Steel,  dble,  steam 

375 

Mar.,  1907 

Uzuki 

' 

" 

375 

Mar.,   1907 

Harukaze.  . 

*• 

" 

375 

May,    1906 

Shigure. . .  . 

' 

" 

" 

375 

July,    1906 

Shiratsuyu. 

' 

" 

" 

381 

June,    1906 

Shirayuki . . 

* 

Mitsubishi  Dockyard 

** 

381 

Aug.,    1906 

Shirotae . .  . 

* 

** 

'* 

381 

Nov.,   1906 

Minatsuki  . 

' 

" 

" 

381 

Oct.,     1906 

Matsukaze. 

' 

" 

381 

Launched 

Dec.,  1906 

Yamakaze  . 

1st  clas 

3 

1,150 

Launched 
Jan.,  1911 

Nagatsuki  . 

3d  class 

Uraga  Dockyard  Co. 

'• 

375 

July,    1907 

Kikuzuki .  . 

** 

" 

*• 

375 

Sept..  1907 

Asatsuyu .  . 

" 

Osaka  Iron  Works 

375 

Oct..    1906 

Hayakaze. . 

375 

Mar..   1907 

Total:  23  warships:  39  torpedo-boat  destroyers. 


»  "  Steel  "  denotes  material  used  for  the  ship's  hull;  "  double,"  "  triple, "  and  "  quad  "  refer  to  the 
number  of  propellers;  "  steam,"  steam  power. 


Torpedo  Boats  and  Submarine  Boats 

(I)  Torpedo  Boats. — The  torpedo  boat  Sagi  and  four  others 
were  built  during  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  but  after  the  war 
not  one  torpedo  boat  was  built,  while  the  building  of  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  was  continued  as  before.  The  reason  is  that 
as  a  result  of  experience  in  that  war,  the  necessity  of  submarine 
boats  was  recognized  and  in  that  period  this  boat  was  built 
instead  of  the  torpedo  boat,  a  matter  worthy  of  notice  in  the 


136 


MILITARY  industries:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


warship  building  interests.     The  torpedo  boats  completed 
during  the  Russo-Japanese  War  were  as  follows : 

Chronological  Table  of  Construction  of  Torpedo  Boats 
(From  the  Russo-Japanese  War  to  the  Present  Time) 


Name 

Kind  and 
Class 

Where  Built 

Material 

Displacement 
Tons 

Date  of 
Completion 

Sagi 

1st  class 

torpedo 

boat 

Kure  Naval 
Arsenal 

Steel 

150 

Mar.,   1904 

Uzura 

" 

" 

" 

" 

Apr.,    1904 

Kamome .  .  . 

" 

" 

" 

i< 

June,    1904 

Hayabusa.  . 

Kawasaki 
Dockyard 

Apr.,    1904 

Otori 

II 

" 

June,    1904 

All  of  the  five  were  first-class  boats  of  the  same  type;  they 
were  entirely  the  same  in  displacement,  horse  power,  construc- 
tion of  engine,  etc.  Their  construction  was  modeled  after  the 
1 50- ton  boat  Hayabusa,  made  by  the  Normand  Company  of 
France,  with  some  improvements  added.  They  were  designed 
as  follows:  Displacement,  152  tons;  horse  power,  3,600;  speed, 
29  knots.  Engine  used,  double  screw,  surface  condensing, 
vertical,  and  triple  expansion,  the  cylinder  being  16.14  inches, 
highest  pressure,  23.23  inches,  mean,  and  35  inches,  lowest, 
with  stroke  of  19.7  inches.  Boiler,  2  water-tube  boilers  of  the 
Normand  type,  of  803  square  feet  in  grate  area  and  5,060 
square  feet  in  heating  surface.  Armament,  i  57  m.m.  quick- 
firing  gun;  2  47  m.  m. quick-firing  guns;  i  14.3  in.  torpedo  tube. 
The  official  trial  after  their  completion  gave  very  satisfactory 
results,  especially  the  speed  which  showed  above  the  expected 
29  knots. 

(II)  Submarine  Boats. — The  building  of  submarine  boats 
was  developed  after  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  before  which 
Japan  had  not  been  advanced  enough  to  build  them  by  herself, 
and  only  purchased  some  from  foreign  countries.     The  first 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


137 


submarine  boat  built  in  Japan  was  the  boat  No.  6,  completed 
in  April,  39  Meiji  (1906),  at  the  Kawasaki  Dockyard. 

The  following  are  the  submarine  boats  built  in  Japan,  from 
the  beginning: 

Chronological  Table  of  the  Construction  of  Submarine  Boats 


Name 

Tonnage 

Where  Built 

Date  of 
Completion 

No.    6 

62 
87 
314 
314 
314 
332 

Kawasaki  Dockyard 
Kure  Naval  Arsenal 

Kawasaki  Dockyard 

Apr.,    1906 

"      7 

"    10 

Aug.,    191 1 

"    II 

"    12 

" 

"      IT. 

Sept.,  1912 

Besides  the  above  mentioned  war  vessels,  there  are  others 
in  the  service  of  the  navy.  All  but  warships  and  torpedo 
boats  belong  to  the  class  which  includes  steamers,  boats,  and 
all  other  kinds  of  vessels.  As  most  of  them  were  purchased  of  "^ 
foreign  countries  or  built  at  domestic  private  yards,  and  only  a 
very  few  were  built  at  military  factories,  they  are  scarcely 
worth  mentioning  as  products  of  military  industry,  and  there-  / 
fore  any  description  of  them  will  be  omitted  here,  except  the 
number  and  cost  of  those  vessels,  as  follows : 

Number 


Steamers  (all  sizes) 348 

Boats 214 

Miscellaneous  vessels i  ,408 


Cost 

Yen 

10,444,668 

123,539 
8,176,629 


Total 1 ,970         18,744,836 

Repairing  of  War  Vessels  and  Its  Cost 
Before  we  finish  our  description  of  the  development  of  ship- 
building, it  must  be  added  that  within  the  sphere  of  "Naval 
Industry  in  War  Vessels"  comes  not  only  the  building  of 
warships,  torpedo-boat  destroyers  and  torpedo  boats,  which 
we  have  described,  but  the  repairing  of  those  vessels,  as  their 
hulls  and   engines  need   repairs    from  time  to    time.     War 


138 


MILITARY   industries:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


vessels  must  enter  the  dock  usually  every  six  months  for  re- 
pairs or  repainting,  the  annual  expense  for  such  work  amount- 
ing to  so  much  that,  if  all  the  vessels,  from  the  largest  warship 
to  the  smallest  torpedo  boat  or  service  boat  are  taken  Jtwould 
_ec[ual  about  30  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  building^f  war  ves- 
sels. Therefore  the  item  of  "repairing"  of  war  vessels  should 
never  be  overlooked  when  naval  industry  is  under  considera- 
tion. Naval  dockyards  such  as  at  Sasebo  and  Maizuru, 
though  fully  equipped  for  any  work,  have  to  do  repairing  as 
their  main  object  rather  than  building  new  ships,  simply 
because  they  are  crowded  with  repairs.  Furthermore,  such 
naval  factories  as  the  Ryojun  Dockyard,  the  Ominato  Re- 
pairing Yard  and  the  Bako  Repairing  Yard  were  set  up  for  the 
special  purpose  of  doing  repairing  and  are  all  possessed  of  per- 
fect equipments,  yet  they  are  in  such  a  busy  state  with  re- 
pairs that  "there  was  never  a  day  long  enough  for  them." 
From  these  facts  it  may  be  seen  how  important  the  repairing 
industry  is.  It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  just  as 
repairing  is  subject  to  fluctuation  in  its  demand,  so  its  annual 
showing  is  mutable.  To  show  how  important  a  place  the  re- 
pairing of  war  vessels  is  occupying  in  naval  industry,  a  table 
comparing  the  annual  sums  of  the  repairing  expense  of  hulls 
and  engines  of  ships  for  five  years  since  41  Meiji  (1908)  will  be 
given  in  the  following  pages. 

Comparison  of  Annual  Expenditures  for  Repairing  of  Hulls  and 
Engines  of  Ships 


Warships 

41  Meiji 
(1908) 

42  Meiji 
(1909) 

43  Meiji 
(1910) 

44  Meiji 
(1911) 

I  Taisho  » 
(1912) 

Fuji 

Shikishima 

Yen 

96,507-334 

198,747.622 

26,951.908 

25,192.546 

108,047.654 

935,908.903 

106,474.462 

359,604.182 

930,628.002 

45,662.937 

50,325.870 

74,092.108 

20,872.422 

Yen 

419,792.690 

116,883.609 

211,276.757 

32,938.389 

30,036.756 

103,885.134 

297,478.009 

52,236.290 

226,582.792 

33.400.384 

193.1SI-127 

164,507-319 

31,855-748 

Yen 
37,596.872 

179,818.533 

105,847-365 
58,362.945 
21,838.845 
42,112.139 

433,030.894 
65,824.286 
25,019.656 
59,968.446 

216,620.761 
32,270.928 

304,276.023 

Yen 
22,727.495 

251. 741-741 
31,320.244 

225,950.549 
35,742.834 
34.226.415 
15.945.953 
46,569-276 
31,027.635 

134,428.643 
42,919.882 
47,799.295 

118,208.001 

Yen 

14,748.333 

27,699-840 

20,287.924 

57,365.352 

289,424.66s 

13,967.931 

8,764.870 

312,286.843 

125,184.231 

546,518.062 

36,878.675 

215.600.561 

29,449-753 

Asahi 

Mikasa 

Iwami 

Sagatni 

Tango 

Hizen 

Suo 

Tokiwa 

Yakumo 

Azuma 

•  The  repairing  expenditure  for  the  ist  year  of  Taisho,  including  that  for  torpedo  boats  and  mis- 
cellaneous ships  besides  what  has  been  given  in  the  above  table,  was  5,086,600  yen,  which  is  equal 
to  28.79  per  cent  of  the  building  expenditure  for  the  same  year,  17,667,110  yen. 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


139 


Comparison  of  Annual  Expenditures  for  Repairing  of  Hulls  and 
Engines  of  Ships — Continued 


Warships 


Iwate 

Izumo 

Kasuga .  .  .  .  . 
Nisshiii .... 

Aso 

Naniwa .... 
Takachio .  . . 
Itsukushima . 
Matsushima 
Hashidate .  .  . 

Aki 

Kurama .... 

Kasagi 

Chitose 

Tsugaru .... 

Soya 

Izuml 

Chiyoda 

Akitsushima . 

Suma 

Akashi 

Niitaka 

Tsushima .  . . 

Otowa 

Chin-en .  .  .  . , 

Iki 

Okishlma.  .  . 
Mishima.  .  .  . 

Kongo , 

Hiei 

Katsuragi.  .  . 

Yamato 

Musashi .... 

Takao 

Chikuma .... 

Matsue 

Maya 

Akagi 

Uji 

Yaeyama .  .  . 

Tatsuta 

Chihaya.  .  .  . 

Manshu 

Toyohashi . . . 
Karasaki .  .  . . 

Katori 

Sumida 

Anegawa .  .  . . 

Suzuya 

Kashima .  .  .  . 
Tsukuba. . . . 

Fushimi 

Ikoma 

Yodo 

Mogami 

Ibuki 

Tone 

Satsuma .... 
Kawachi .... 

Settsu  

Hirato 

Yahagi 

Toba 


41  Meiji 
(1908) 


Yen 

36,264.716 

45,911-828 

22,227.827 

22,128.175 

226,980.059 

20,939  ■  692 

5.053.506 

30,036.332 

761.600 

24,982.033 


83,491-914 
63,091-697 

219,785-132 

190,622.497 
6,725-548 
13,746-053 

116,401 .283 
85,110.874 
15,263.433 
41,424.359 
44,832.304 
14,764.468 
14,940 .  260 

154,103  032 

35,340-371 

16,755-358 

6,810.214 

14,275-751 

8,54f^476 

3,510.455 

21,282.156 

11,197.576 

6,533-978 

1,285-130 

3,096.764 

12,632.643 

18,279.443 

7,402.703 

14,497-796 

22,134.018 

6,461.235 

17,765.466 

38,292.013 

2,624.037 

24,656.990 

111,911-747 

121,232  .008 

191,865-865 

4,844-735 

19,793-035 

5,316.769 

3,532.013 


42  Meiji 
(1909) 


Yen 

8,138.582 
41,006. 161 
14,040.139 
29,139-905 
31,991 .262 

6,566.791 
34,460.818 
34,833-867 

12,147-573 


243,994-034 

121,351-811 

413,529.464 

55,185-033 

6,445-616 

91,929-576 

8,371-038 

11,864.239 

13,466.568 

32,575-807 

40,621.338 

10,563-855 

13,338-526 

83,853-834 

25,284.583 

12,334-773 

3,911-927 
5,800.282 

18,442.459 
4,994-760 

11,921 .676 

8,342.968 

2,486.529 
5,102.280 
9,211 .562 
2,610.  no 
6,471 .660 

13,974-924 

10,173-152 
7,254.222 

80,669.706 

3,972-708 

8,307-783 

416,706.869 

28,433.046 

134,099.501 

2,478-860 

15,730-302 
4,810.317 
4,028.686 

20,772.477 


Total 5. 230,479-317    4.141.768.963    2,938,523.343    2,699,594-638    3,512,854-230 


43  Meiji 
(1910) 


Yen 
275,349-984 
32,902.951 
48,270.383 
78,571-893 
53,831-240 
13,321-356 
40,248. 100 
26,439.479 

28,885.289 


45,563-821 

25, 574-002 

72,121-332 

116,849.886 

8,918.341 

6,009.600 

12,890.817 

12,227.846 

104,302.580 

8,267.556 

18,481 .144 

9,072.793 

1,787-696 

12,222.797 

16,290.614 

4,642 .  804 

'36.685 
2,148. 191 
6,301.714 
4,392-992 
1,149.069 

4,533-136 

2,810.280 

737-230 

7,315-695 

9,661.676 

11,361.498 

5,581.648 

6,398.832 

5,181.780 

40,486.100 

4,012.035 

12,076.144 

6,895.265 

40,300.506 

63,170.041 

4,525-594 

45,180.192 

11,815.780 

13,074-103 

39,873-546 

23,652.143 

10,219.471 


44  Meiji 
(1911) 


Yen 
21,493.453 
86,506.300 
16,783.926 
17,635.759 
82,751.442 
16,627.958 

9,702.419 
25,149-837 

14,147-973 

42,980.926 

44,671.050 

37,850.905 

465,141 .966 

12,417.906 

23,025.359 

7,995-530 

9,802.751 

16,294-447 

20,174-845 

182,066.114 

19,181.320 

12,814.813 

16,662.326 

2-777 

1,179.426 

8,831.357 

11,232.582 


6,948.181 
27,379.150 

3,787-549 
2.778 

2,637-820 
29,781-430 

1-490 
894- 162 

2,754-134 

10,648-762 

9,746-197 

5,593-320 

4,167.960 

31,791-746 

208.207 

13,546.782 

21,708.692 

34,040.271 

50,435-869 

152.193 

60,295.220 

26,613.087 

9,422.464 

32,451.901 

16,102.931 

36,748-912 


I  Taisho' 
(1912) 


Yen 

15,841.824 

263,231.056 

75,490.767 

95,232.487 

119,715.906 

15,938.570 

7,886.304 

27,390.882 

9,868!82i 
28,448.894 
103,096.314 
48,888.730 
26,920.550 
32,808.669 
28,163.718 
169-S19 
17,605-338 
13,053-742 

9,725-578 
10,712.754 

9,404-724 
16,432.530 

6,777 -045 

4,360.995 
3.619.963 
4,379-044 


658.893 

5,732.050 

13,081 .961 

27,504.670 
8,220.476 


46,907.960 

23,688.099 
76,844.416 
16,628.685 

2,729.23s 
15,100.504 
19,469.730 

3,434-756 

11,791-978 
48,060.247 
159,764.768 

1,527.883 
24,199328 
10,302.376 

5,116.298 

47,006.003 

18,413-242 

157,537-319 

52,19s  037 

6,287-785 
12,155-596 

3,257-194 

1,996.977 


»The  repairing  expenditure  for  the  ist  year  of  Taisho,  including  that  for  torpedo  boats  and  mis- 
cellaneous ships  besides  what  has  been  given  in  the  above  table,  was  5,086,600  yen,  which  is  equaJ 
to  28.79  per  cent  of  the  building  expenditure  for  the  same  year,  17,667,1 10  yen. 


140 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


Comparison  of  Annual  Expenditures  for  Repairing  of  Hulls  and 
Engines  of  Ships — Continued 


Torpedo- Boat 
Destroyers 


Shinonome 

Murakumo.  .  .  . 

Yugiri 

Shiranui 

Kagero 

Usugumo 

Inazutna 

Ikazuchi 

Akebono 

Sazanami 

Oboro 

Shirakumo 

Asajio 

Kasumi 

Harusame 

Murasame 

Asagiri , 

Ariake 

Fubuki 

Arare , 

Satsuki 

Ushio 

Hatsushimo 

Kamikaze 

Yayoi 

Nenohi 

Fuzuki 

Kisaragi 

Yamabiko 

Shikinami 

Makigumo .  .  .  .  , 

Asakaze 

Yugure 

Wakaba 

Harukaze 

Oikaze 

Hatsuyuki 

Shiratsuyu .... 

Yudachi 

Shigure 

Asatsuyu 

Nowaki 

Minatsuki 

Matsukaze 

Hibiki 

Mikazuki 

Shirayuki 

Hatsuharu 

Umikaze 

Yamakaze 

Hayakaze 

Shirotae 

Yunagi , 

Uzuki 

Nagatuski 

Kikuzuki 

Uranami 

Ayanarai 

Isonami 

Sakura 

Tachibana 

Total 

Grand  total 


41  Meiji 
(1908) 


Yen 

20,088.753 
1,899.630 

18,149.158 
2,536.336 
1,877.918 
4,869.081 

16,093.473 

21,835.765 
5,472.106 
1,120.754 
6,398.192 
4,596.285 
4,738.106 

20,720.763 
8,346.059 
4,601.377 
3,977.098 
5.955-592 
5.424.924 
6,264.367 
6,919384 
6,366.003 
6,006.674 
6,145-557 
6,213.809 
5.599-557 

73.153-031 
5,244.394 

41.515-1 

25,186.390 

49.906.759 
6.569  303 
5,140.  lOI 

4,209.493 
4,284.795 

44.497  - : 
3,972.672 
4,892.890 
5,129.809 
6,240.742 
2,774-936 
4.395-209 
2,280.771 
3,421  .  106 
4,855-268 
2,680.268 
3.835-225 


3.797-588 
2.709 -225 
5,497-167 
5. 276. 940 
4,167. 117 
5,582.673 
1,066.661 


534.510.228 
5,764,989.545 


42  Meiji 
(1909) 


Yen 

21,731-761 

7,076.517 

3.701.32s 

32,727.026 

36,652.588 

27.903.097 

10.231.579 

7.668.031 

27.969.300 

2,469 .  642 

5,052.796 

46,103.630 

46,583-967 

7,095-878 

9,911-883 

7,946.372 

7.053-791 

4,556.214 

5,214.916 

6,808.605 

11,790.223 

4.032.739 

5,624.622 

6,450.510 

6,204.221 

2,964.995 

5,449.278 

5,499-251 

3.568.193 

25,508.167 

5,570.283 

2,775-995 

1,868.646 

3,326.741 

3,901.824 

17,543-783 

3.578.693 

3,260.708 

2,770.135 

4,487.525 

4,180.733 

2,254.828 

3,201.905 

3,239-107 

5,171.540 

3,068.013 

7,983.520 

4,642.542 


3.523-312 
3,418.437 
2,463.902 
1. 559-956 
2,334-830 
1,761 .522 
2,863  576 
893.028 
2,214.614 


505,411.81s 
4,647,180.778 


43  Meiji 
(1910) 


Yen 

3,104.538 
39,970.683 
3.955-477 
1,787-944 
1,441 .298 
10,957.161 
3.551-697 
6.542-543 
4,791.089 
2,775-328 
38,994-513 
4,430.872 
4,320.80) 
5.148.751 
5,186.926 
4.930.892 
5,199-124 
22,143.105 
23,191-923 
26,566.355 
3,761.069 
8,566.859 
2,679.752 
3,041 .220 
3,991.606 
8,174-455 
4,580.818 
2,966.713 
3,740.788 
33.798.130 
29.957-55^ 
8,755-271 
6,384.098 
9,814.581 
4,988.932 
3,651.254 
3,631  -170 
3,202.847 
4,342.011 
3,946.307 
8,057-575 
5,319.074 
5,612. 161 
6,859-142 
4,258.131 
3,682.940 
4,766.454 
3.731-653 


5,983-632 
8,076.362 
5.777.. 
6.499-492 
6,735-678 
7. 713-918 
1.510.637 
911-852 
1,442.346 


44  Meiji 
(1911) 


459.905 -083 
3,398,428.426 


Yen 

4,161.117 

4,370.162 

9.363-523 

S-S90.771 

3,404.685 

3.199.509 

6,803.061 

6,248.500 

5,664.294 

3.737.172 

5,709.479 

5,252.348 

3,026.823 

7,249.094 

6,025.413 

7,878.664 

3,601.947 

3,846.29s 

5,263.548 

4,738.477 

41,608.687 

20,402.609 

4,618.864 

33.949-811 

2,319.  no 

4.230.950 

3,127-245 

5,902.184 

3,025.027 

5.695.729 

40,524.064 

12,169.217 

3,072.070 

54,507.981 

3.638.725 

4,114.750 

13,004.447 

14,531.786 

4,654.112 

3.363.439 

5,288.413 

6,417-071 

5,163.628 

3,169. 116 

11,629.356 

5,024.338 

4.317.63s 

2,971.956 

1,008. 116 
3,281.235 
6,246.022 

3,463.961 
10,340.960 
6,880.234 
4,867.418 
6,643.041 
4,477.674 
5,880.009 


I  Taisho ' 
(1912)) 


480,665.872 
3,180,260.510 


Yen 

6,437. 354 

2,474.113 
3,605.047 
9,285.837 
4,558.004 
4.065.43s 

42,274.961 
4,730.427 
7,066.79s 
S.363.787 
3,440.14s 
4,142.550 
9,563.611 

36,917.131 

44,821.369 

6,238.740 

42,847.98s 

5,924-207 

8,533.417 

5.556.799 

25.057-082 

36,898.733 

5.366.589 

46,014.200 

13,106.700 

32,733.11s 

3,469.939 

8,521.956 

560.569 

5,114.801 

23,240.30s 

41.576.954 

3,544-950 

6,283.553 

43.556.77s 

25.657.69a 

23.371-998 

42.957-259 

36,331-233 

7,784-656 

4,137.287 

8,891-855 

32,886.779 

25.441-037 

9,863.650 

42,610.913 

18,497.518 

11,165.830 

4,742.138 

9,918. 120 

5,610.779 

8,942.089 

10,580.221 

4,407 .  860 

3,886.677 

5,285.940 

3,790.887 

2,955-371 

47.419-396 


950,031 .117 
4,462,885.347 


»  The  repairing  expenditure  for  the  ist  year  of  Taisho,  including  that  for  torpedo  boats  and  mis- 
cellaneous ships  besides  what  has  been  given  in  the  above  table,  was  5,086,600  yen,  which  is  equal 
to  28.79  per  cent  of  the  building  expenditure  for  the  same  year,  17,667,110  yen. 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


141 


Cost  of  Naval  Vessels' 

(Investigated  May  31,  191 3) 


Jmisdiction 


Yokosuka  Na- 
val Station 


Kure     Naval 
Station 


Sasebo   Naval 
Station 


Maizuni  Naval 
Station 


Kind  of  Vessels 


Warships 

Torpedo-boat 

destroyers.  . 
Torpedo  boats. 

Steamers 


Boats 

Miscellaneous. 

Total 


Warships 

Torpedo-boat 

destroyers 
Torpedo  boats 
Submarine 

boats 


Steamers 

Boats 

Miscellaneous . 

Total.,... 


Warships 

Torpedo-boat 

destroyers  . 

Torpedo  boats 

Steamers 


Previous  Year 


Num- 
ber 


Miscellaneous . 


Total. 


Warships 

Torpedo-boat 

destroyers  . , 
Torpedo  boats. 

Steamers 

Boats 


Miscellaneous 


Total. 


Steamers.  . . . 

Boats 

Miscellaneous 


Total . . 
Grand  total 


18 
11 

105 
65 
360 


576 
17 


69 
387 


593 


19 

28 

92 

45 

400 


602 
11 


264 


124 
2,159 


Cost  Yen 


51,593,081.645 

5,641,107.742 
2,070,874.095 

3,079,565.642 

33,558.852 

2,415,985.775 


64,834,173.751 

54,125,959.860 

4,302,776.214 
780,106.763 

3,797,712.339 

4,043,094.462 

43,317.269 

1,277,519.275 


68,370,486.182 

53,986,086.163 

8,572,985.410 
5,662,556.346 

2,109,797.272 

33,290.320 

2,324,189.457 


Increase  or  Decrease 


Num- 
ber 


2 

-2 

1 

-3 

15 

-17 


-5 
3 

'-2 

1 
'  2 
-10 
•    -3 

4 


72,688,904.968 

44,648,929.139 

3,282,683.318 

1.273,200.630 

930,777.408 

12,922.867 

1,901,056.768 


52,049,570.130 

281,433.226 
450.000 

257,877.785 


539,761.011 
258,482,896.042 


/       2 

I   -1 

-4 

f     12 

1-23 


Cost  Yen 


-1,281,678.964 


13,431.148 

-64,287.000 

200.000 

-1,505.541 

1,392,925.481 

-394,827.703 


-335,742.579 


-121,021  594 

144,855.000 

29,383.920 

-2,111,733.838 

-145,000.000 

146,624.754 

-204,778.948 


-12 
2 


— 1 
— 1 
— 1 
4 
—18 


—15 

1 

—2 


— 1 

^4 


-2,261,670.706 


-2,543,261.889 


390.000 

-1,400.000 

-670.000 

2,674,968.332 

-2,641,791.977 


Present  Year 


Num- 
ber 


18 
11 

105 

63 

358 


571 
20 
12 


385 


582 


-2,511,765.534 


-129,750.302 

-480.000 

-621.620 

154,876.308 

-133,776.059 


-109,751.673 
47,215.088 
-600.000 


46,615.088 
-5,172,315.404 


590 
12 


7 
41 
31 

150 


123 
2,115 


Cost  Yen 


50.311,402.681 

5,641,107.742 
2,070,874.095 

3.028.709.790 

32,253.311 

3,414,083.553 


64,498,431.172 

54,125,959.860 

4,302,776.214 
659,085.169 

3,797,712.339 

1,960,744.544 
43,172.269 

1,219,365.081 


66,108,815.476 


51,442,424.274 

8,572,985.410 
5,662,956.346, 

2,108,787.272 
32,620.320 

2,357,365.812 


70,177,139.434 

44,648,929.139 

3,282,683.318 

1,143,450.328 

930,297.408 

12,301.247 

1,922,157.017 


51,939,818.457 

328,648.314 

450.000 

257,277.785 


586,376.099 
253,310,580.633 


^  The  values  of  ships  given  in  this  table  comprise  the  values  of  ships  purchased 
from  foreign  countries,  besides  those  of  the  Japanese-built  vessels. 

In  the  "increase  or  decrease"  column  of  the  table,  the  figures  marked  by  the 
symbol  " — "  are  decreases,  and  others,  not  marked,  increases. 


142  MILITARY  industries:  HISTORICAL  SURVEY 

In  the  preceding  table  is  stated  the  number  and  cost  of  all 
vessels  belonging  to  the  Imperial  Japanese  Navy,  in  order  to 
show  Japan  as  a  naval  power,  and  thereby  enable  the  reader 
to  form  an  idea  of  what  the  construction  and  repairing  of  such 
ships  mean  to  the  economy  of  a  country. 

Shipbuilding  and  the  Manufacture  of  Engines 

We  will  conclude  our  description  of  industries  relating  to 
warships  by  summarizing  in  the  following  pages  the  plans  of 
the  engine-making  industry. 

(I)  Plans  of  the  Dockyards  at  the  Present  Time,  (a)  The 
Shipbuilding  Department  of  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal. — 

I .  Principal  structures  are  as  follows : 
Docks : 

No.   I.     Length,  364  feet — opened  in  October,  5  Meiji 

(1872). 
No.   2.     Length,   472   feet — opened   in  June,    17   Meiji 

(1884). 
No.  3.     Length,  282  feet — opened  in  January,  7  Meiji 

(1874)- 
No.  4.     Length,  574  feet — opened  in  January,  39  Meiji 
(1906). 
Keel  block:  5. 

Factories:  small  attached  structures  and  structures  not  directly 
concerned  in  the  work  are  omitted. 
Drawing  Office  (2  parts):  the  main  workroom,  drawing 

office  store. 
Shipbuilding  Shed  (7  parts) :  the  main  factory,  the  first 
machine  shop,  the  second  machine  shop,  a  bending  slab, 
a  forge,  two  material  yards. 
Equipment  Shop  (10  parts):  a  mold  loft  and  a  machine 
shop,  two  iron-working  shops,  a  zinc  plating  shop,  a 
woodwork  mill,  a  nickel  and  silver  plating  shop,  a  tube- 
work  mill,  a  sawing  and  planing  shop,  an  erecting  shop, 
a  hydraulic  testing  room. 
Ship  Repair  Shop  (10  parts) :  a  machine  shop,  a  painter's 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE    PRESENT   TIME 


143 


shop,  a  boat  building  shop,  a  boat  shed,  the  fourth  dock- 
master's  office,  a  pitch  shed,  two  woodwork  mills,  a 
calker's  shop,  a  forge  shop.  (The  pump  houses  and 
the  like  attached  to  the  docks  are  not  enumerated.  It 
will  be  the  same  with  those  under  the  other  arsenals 
which  follow.) 
Rigger's  Shop  (3  parts) :  the  main  factory,  an  anchor  fac- 
tory, two  anchor  chain  tester  sheds. 
2.  A  general  classification  and  the  number  of  the  machines 

provided  and  in  use  in  the  above-mentioned  factories  are  as 

follows : 


Engines  and  Machines 

Hull  Con- 
struction 
Yard 

Equipment 
Shop 

Ship 
Repair 
Shop 

Rigger's 
Shop 

Total 

Boilers  and  driving    en- 
gines .  .  .  .•  

I 
12 

7 

2 

84 

6 

57 
16 

2 
13 

3 

I 

128 

II 

28 

7 

8 
5 

43 

8 

6 

7- 

3 

16 
2 

3 
36 

15 

3 

255 

25 

91 

46 

2 

Dynamos  and  motors .  .  . 

Pumps     and     hydraulic 

machinery 

Air  compressing  engines 
Workshop  machines .... 
Grinders 

Smith  hearths  and  blow- 
ers   

Cranes  and  travelers.  ... 
Testing  machines 

Total 

185 

193 

77 

21 

476 

3.  Number  of  workmen  engaged  in  the  Yokosuka  Naval 
Shipbuilding  Department,  on  March  20,  3  Taisho  (1914) : 


Factories 

Ordinary 

Writers 

Miscel- 
laneous 

Appren- 
tices 

Females 

Total 

Manager's  office .  .  . 

Drawing  office.  .  .  . 

Hull     construction 

yard 

"83 

1,292 
805 

781 
255 

41 

4 

6 

7 
7 
3 

45 

29 
56 

7 

8 

21 

6 

41 
132 

1.335 
889 
801 

258 

Equipment  shop  .  . 
Ship  repair  shop .  .  . 
Rigger's  shop 

Total 

3,216 

41 

27 

137 

35 

3.456 

144  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

(b)  The  Shipbuilding  Department  of  the  Kure  Naval 
Arsenal. — 

1 .  Principal  structures  are  as  follows : 
Docks : 

No.  I.     Length,  408  feet — opened  in  March,  21  Meiji 

(1888). 
No.  2.     Length,  478  feet — opened  in  March,  31  Meiji 

(1898). 
No.  3.     Length,  744  feet — opened  in  March,  45  Meiji 

(1912). 
No.  4.     (For  building  ships.)     Length,  717  feet — opened 

in  March,  45  Meiji  (1912). 

Keel  block:   3. 

Factories:   small    attached    structures    and    structures    not 
directly  concerned  in  the  work  are  omitted. 

Drawing  Office  (2  parts) :  the  main  workroom,  a  drawing 
office  store. 

Shipbuilding  Shed  (17  parts):  a  plater's  yard  and  mold 
loft  (2  parts),  a  joiner's  shop  and  a  store,  a  galvanizing 
shop,  an  angle  smith  shop,  a  fitter's  shop,  a  rivet  forge, 
a  sawmill,  electric  sub-station  and  shed  (2  parts),  a 
bending  slab  and  a  tool  repairing  shop,  an  equipment 
shop,  a  plumber's  shop  and  an  angle  smith  shop,  a 
blacksmith  shop,  a  plate  shed  and  a  machine  shop  and 
a  plumber's  shop  for  constructor's  department. 

Ship  Repair  Shop  (5  parts) :  the  main  workshop,  a  pitch 
shed,  a  paint  store,  a  painting  oil  boiling  shed,  a  dock 
master's  store. 

Rigger's  Shop  (3  parts) :  the  main  workshop,  an  anchor 
tester  shed,  a  tar  shed. 

2.  A  general  classification  and  the  number  of  the  machines 
provided  and  in  use  in  the  above-mentioned  factories  are  as 
follows : 


RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE    PRESENT   TIME 


145 


Engines 


Boilers  and  driving  en- 
gines   

Dynamos  and  motors .  .  . 

Pump  and  hydraulic 
machinery 

Air  compressing  engines 

Workshop  machines .... 

Grinders 

Smith  hearths  and  blow- 
ers   

Cranes  and  travellers .  .  . 

Testing  machines 

Total 


Hull  Con- 
struction 
Yard 


26 

16 

6 

291 

35 

92 
22 


496 


Ship 

Repair 

Shop 


ID 

4 


17 


Rigger's 
Shop 


Manager's 
Office 


44 
I 


51 


Total 


15 
26 

26 

6 

301 

35 

92 

66 

I 


568 


3.  Number  of  workmen  employed  in  the  Shipbuilding  De- 
partment of  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal,  March  20,  3  Taisho 
(1914): 


Factories 

Ordinary 

Writers 

Miscel- 
laneous 

Appren- 
tices 

Females 

Total 

Manager's  office . .  . 

Drawing  office.  .  .  . 

Hull     construction 

yard 

"87 

2,112 

228 
66 

28 

I 

27 
I 

2 

8 
4 

32 

4 

216 

49 

94 

I 

36 
141 

2,265 

234 
284 

Ship  repair  shop .  .  . 
Rigger's  shop 

Total 

2,493 

59 

264 

144 

2,960 

(c)  The  Shipbuilding   Department  of  the  Sasebo  Naval 
Arsenal. — 

I .  Principal  structures  are  as  follows : 
Docks : 

No.  I.     Length,  430  feet — opened  in  October,  28  Meiji 

(1895). 
No.   3.     Length,    571    feet — opened  in   June,    38    Meiji 
(1905). 


11 


146 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


No.  4.     Length,   767  feet — opened  in  April,   38    Meiji 

(1905)- 
No.   5.     Length,   610  feet — opened  in  April,   38   Meiji 

(1905). 
No.   6.     Length,  486  feet — opened  in  April,   38   Meiji 

(1905). 
Keel  block :   4. 
Factories : 

Drawing  Office  (2  parts) :  the  main  workroom,  a  drawing 

office  store. 
Shipbuilding  Shed  (8  parts) :  the  main  factory,  a  wood- 
work shop,  and  mold  loft  works,  three  shipbuilding 
machine  shops,  two  forges,  a  galvanizing  shop. 
Ship  Repair  Shop  (8  parts) :  the  main  workshop,  a  saw- 
mill, a  boat  building  shop,  a  boat  shed,  a  pitch  shed, 
painter's  shop,  a  ship  repair  shop,  two  working  shops. 
Rigger's  Shop  (2  parts) :  the  main  factory,  rigger's  shop 
store.   . 

2.  A  general  classification  and  the  number  of  the  machines 
provided  and  in  use  in  the  above-mentioned  factories  are  as 
follows : 


Machines 

Shipbuilding 
Shed 

Ship  Repair 
Shop 

Rigger's 
Shop 

Total 

Boilers    and    driving    en- 
aines 

3 
3 

10 
4 
143 
20 
56 
12 

9 
2 

18 

18 

II 

8 

16 

I 

5 
I 

12 

Dynamos  and  motors .... 
Pumps  and  hydrauHc  ma- 
chines  

5 
28 

Air  compressing  machines 

Workshop  machines 

Grinders      

4 

161 

'K2 

Smith  hearths  and  blowers 

Cranes  and  travelers 

Testing  machines 

64 

33 

I 

Total 

251 

82 

7 

340 

RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


147 


3.  The  number  of  workmen  at  work  in  the  Shipbuilding 
Department  of  the  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal,  on  March  20,  3 
Taisho  (1914),  is  as  follows: 


Factories 

Ordinary 

Writers 

Miscel- 
laneous 

Appren- 
tices 

Females 

Total 

Manager's  office .  .  . 
Drawing  office  .... 
Shipbuilding  shed  . 
Ship  repair  shop .  .  . 
Rigger's  shop 

29 

828 

239 
98 

13 
I 
6 

3 

2 

2 

2 

69 

32 

42 

26- 

47 

3 

I 

4 

15 

58 
954 
277 
143 

Total 

1,194 

25 

147 

77 

4 

1.447 

(d)  The  Shipbuilding  Department  of  the  Maizuru  Naval 
Arsenal. — 

I .  The  principal  structures  are  as  follows : 
Docks : 

No.   I  for  torpedo  boat.     Length,  249  feet — opened  in 

October,  35  Meiji  (1902). 
No.  2  for  torpedo  boat.     Length,  190  feet — opened  in 

October,  35  Meiji  (1902). 
No.  3.   Length,   528  feet — opened  in  March,  37  Meiji 
(1904). 
Keel  block:   3. 
Factories : 

Drawing  Office  (2  parts) :  the  main  workroom,  and  draw- 
ing office  store. 
Shipbuilding  Shed  (6  parts) :  (a)  a  woodwork  shop  and  a 
sawmill,   an  angle  iron   shop,  a  galvanizing  shop,  a 
bending  slab,  a  blacksmith  shop  and  a  copper  shed,  an 
iron  works,     (b)  A  woodwork  shop  and  a  mold  loft. 
Ship  Repair  Shop  (6  parts) :  a  pitch  shed,  a  painter's  shop 
and  calker's  shop  (2  parts),  a  paint  store,  a  shore  shed, 
a  boat  shed. 
Rigger's  Shop   (3  parts):  the  main  factory,  a  rigger's 
store,  an  anchor  tester  shed. 


148 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


2.  A  general  classification  and  the  number  of  machines 
provided  and  in  use  in  the  above-mentioned  factories  are  as 
follows : 


Machines 

Shipbuilding 
Shed 

Ship  Repair 
Shop 

Rigger's 
Shop 

Total 

Boilers    and    driving    en- 
gines   

4 

12 

3 
141 

24 
30 

7 

I 

4 

ID 

3 

5 

ID 

3 

4 
4 

22 

EVynamos  and  motors  .... 
Pumps  and  hydraulic  ma- 
chines   

Air  compressing  machines 

Workshop  machines 

Grinders 

3 

141 

27 

30 
22 

4 

Smith  hearths  and  blowers 

Cranes  and  travelers 

Testing  machines 

Total 

222 

22 

13 

257 

3.  The  number  of  workmen  at  work  in  the  Shipbuilding  De- 
partment of  the  Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal,  on  March  20,  3 
Taisho  (1914): 


Factories 

Ordinary 

Writers 

Miscel- 
laneous 

Appren- 
tices 

Females 

Total 

Manager's  office .  .  . 
Drawing  office .... 

(a)  Shipbuilding 

shed 

(b)  Shipbuilding 

shed 

Ship  repair  shop .  .  . 
Rigger's  shop 

33 
130 

571 
108 

115 

9 

3 

I 

5 
I 
;2 

I 

3 
2 

24 

13 

13 

73 
I 

I 

7 

22 

7 
5 

9 

57 

144 

674 
119 
147 

Total 

957 

21 

30 

lOI 

41 

1,150 

(II)  The  Engine-making  Industry. — The  first  launching  of 
a  warship  of  the  Western  type  in  the  navy  of  Japan  was  per- 
formed in  3  Bunkyu  (1863),  five  years  before  the  era  of  Meiji, 
when  the  warship  Chiyoda  was  launched.  To  give  some  main 
points,  for  example,  the  warship  Chiyoda  was  140  tons  in  dis- 
placement, 96  feet  in  length,  with  60  horse  power  in  engine. 
She  could  hardly  be  called  a  warship,  but  was  rather  akin  to  an 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME  1 49 

auxiliary  ship,  in  the  sense  in  which  those  terms  are  applied 
nowadays. 

The  progress  of  engine  making  from  the  beginning  of  Meiji 
to  the  Sino-Japanese  War  was  very  slow.  Of  all  the  engines 
built  in  this  period,  one  for  the  warship  Akitsushima  was 
the  largest,  and  yet  its  actual  horse  power  was  only  5,000  or 
more.  The  industry  as  carried  on  by  the  navy  after  that  time 
remained  almost  unchanged  until  the  Russo-Japanese  War, 
and  the  perfection  of  the  equipment  for  future  work  was  the 
chief  object  of  effort. 

Whereas  all  the  engines  built  before  the  Sino-Japanese  War 
were  longitudinal,  vertical  engines  were  adopted  for  all  ships 
built  after  the  war;  and  whereas  formerly  only  cylindrical 
boilers  had  been  used,  Normand  boilers  were  placed  in  the 
warship  Chihaya,  Niclausse  boilers  in  the  warships  Niitaka 
and  Tsushima y  and  water-tube  boilers  of  the  "Navy"  type  in 
the  warship  Otowa. 

The  invention  of  the  Miyabara  water- tube  boiler  is,  with  its 
adoption  by  the  navy,  a  notable  event.  The  details  of  its 
construction  can  not  be  described  here,  but  at  any  rate  it  is  a 
matter  of  some  encouragement  to  the  Japanese  that  an  inven- 
tion was  made  in  this  country  by  which  they  can  make  their 
boilers  at  home,  when  all  of  the  many  water-tube  boilers  used 
in  the  Japanese  Navy  were  of  foreign  invention,  most  being 
made  in  England,  France  and  other  countries. 

The  first  adoption  of  that  boiler  was  at  the  time  when  in  34 
Meiji  (191 1 )  the  boilers  of  the  warship  Hashidate  were  re- 
placed. The  result  of  this  adoption  was  very  satisfactory, 
and  the  boiler  has  been  used  for  most  of  the  battleships  and 
cruisers  built  since  that  time.  While  the  development  of  the 
engine-making  industry  up  to  the  Russo-Japanese  War  is  as 
briefly  stated  above,  the  results  of  the  war,  with  the  comple- 
tion of  the  equipment  of  the  factories,  opened  an  epoch  in  the 
history  of  said  industry,  and  put  Japan  in  a  position  to  make  at 
one  bound  engines  for  armored  cruisers  and  further  those  for 
dreadnoughts  and  super-dreadnoughts,  as  will  be  shown  in  the 
table  given  on  pages  150  and  151. 


I50 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


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RUSSO-JAPANESE   WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME 


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152  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:  HISTORICAL   SURVEY 

Horse 
Number      Power 

Total  of  Warships 50         708,117 

Total  of  torpedo-boat  destroyers 43  294,000 

Total  of  torpedo  boats 42  71,250 

Total  of  submarine  boats 6  3,400 

Grand  total 141       i  ,076,767 

At  present,  factories  owned  by  the  navy  for  engine  making 

are  four  (at  Yokosuka,  Kure,  Sasebo  and  Maizuru),  and  three 

at  the  secondary  naval  stations  at  Ominato,  Bako  and  Ryojun. 

/^  he  working  arrangement  of  these  factories  is,  briefly,  as  fol- 

/  lows:   Building  area  of  all  structures:  32,550  tsuho   (about 

V    26.6  acres);  number  of  machines:   2,620;  workmen   (round 

X^umber) :   8,400. 

As  the  amount  of  work  of  engine  making  in  the  naval  ar- 
senals is  generally  determined  by  that  of  the  work  of  ship- 
building, which  is  necessarily  unsteady,  advancement  in  the 
same  industry  can  not  well  be  shown  by  figures ;  but  advance 
or  increase  of  manufacturing  capacity  may  be  observed  from 
the  table  on  the  preceding  pages,  in  which  the  engine  power  is 
given  for  each  ship. 

Fuel 

(I)  The  Naval  Colliery. — The  Naval  Colliery  has  under  its 
jurisdiction  the  Shimbara  Coal  Mine  and  the  Omine  Coal 
Mine.  From  the  days  before  the  Restoration,  domestic  coal 
was  mostly  used  by  the  Japanese  Navy  as  fuel  both  for  its 
factories  and  war  vessels.  But  there  was  also  no  small  amount 
of  foreign  coal  imported,  especially  English  coal,  the  supply  of 
which  was  depended  upon  for  warships  every  year.  It  was 
thought  not  only  necessary  for  the  sake  of  independence  of 
fueling  in  war  time,  but  also  advantageous  from  the  economi- 
cal point  of  view  in  time  of  peace,  to  have  under  the  control  of 
the  navy  some  coal  mines  in  this  country  rich  in  good  coal. 
In  January,  21  Meiji  (1888),  the  coal  mine  at  Shimbara,  Sue 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME  1 53 

Mura,  Kasuya  District,  Fukuoka  Prefecture,  was  appointed 
as  a  reserve  mine  of  the  navy,  for  the  mining  of  which  a 
committee  was  appointed  in  November,  22  Meiji  (1889),  and 
operations  were  then  started.  In  March,  23  Meiji  (1890), 
the  Shimbara  Colliery  was  established,  and,  its  work  being 
carried  on  directly  by  the  Navy  Department,  it  was  assigned 
to  the  Special  Accounts.  In  August,  33  Meiji  (1900),  the 
name  of  the  mining  office  was  changed  to  the  present  one,  the 
Naval  Colliery.  The  government  has  another  coal  mine  ex- 
tending over  the  Village  of  Katsuno  and  two  other  villages  in 
Kurate  District,  Chikuzen  Province,  but  the  mining  there  is 
done  by  contract. 

The  mine  lots  in  the  above  two  places  are  four  in  all,  contain- 
ing an  area  of  2,622,560  tsubo  (about  2,143  acres),  and  the  out- 
put of  coal  in  the  fiscal  year  of  i  Taisho  (19 12)  amounted  to 
402,414,519  kgs. 

The  yields  of  the  Shimbara  Coal  Mine  directly  carried  on 
by  the  Navy  Department  are  of  five  sorts,  the  Shimbara  lump, 
the  Shimbara  dust,  the  Shimbara  mixed,  the  Shimbara  lump 
for  miscellaneous  use,  and  the  Shimbara  bad  coal,  the  total 
output  of  which  in  the  last  five  years  is  as  follows : 

Tons 

41  (fiscal  year)  Meiji  (1908) ioi.747 

42  "                "(1909) 113,499 

43  "                 "(1910) 153,361 

44  "                 "  (191 1) 202,'876 

I  "        Taisho  (1912) 237,895 

The  expense  for  operation  of  the  same  colliery  in  i  Taisho 
(1912)  was  something  over  2,624,946  yen,  and  the  income, 
over  2,700,910  yen,  and  the  difference  of  more  than  75,963  yen, 
being  net  profit,  was  transferred  to  the  General  Income  Ac- 
count. The  net  profitwasover  5.2  percent  on  the  total  capital 
of  1,444,500  yen  invested  in  the  same  year,  consisting  of  1,344,- 
500  yen  fixed  capital  and  100,000  yen  working  capital. 

The  first  table  on  the  following  page  shows  the  profit  and 
loss  in  the  work  of  the  Naval  Colliery  in  the  last  five  years. 


154 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL    SURVEY 


Years 
(fiscal) 


Profit 


Fixed  Capital 


Working 
Capital 


Total  Capital 


Profit 

Pro 

Rata  to 

Total  Capital 


1908 .  . 
1909.. 
1910. . 
1911 .  . 
1912. . 


Yen 
43,686.000 
83,874.624 
103,039.160 
78,618.292 
75,963-394 


Yen 
560,632 . 1 10 
585,676.563 
589,224.739 
585,806.661 
1,344,500.041 


Yen 
100,000.000 
100,000.000 
100,000.000 
100,000.000 
100,000.000 


Yen 
660,632.110 
685,676.563 
689,224.739 
685,806.661 
1,444,500.041 


6.61 
12.22 

1495 

II  .46 

5.20 


In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  mines,  the  government 
owns  a  coal  mine  at Omine  Village,  Mine  District,  Nagato  Prov- 
ince. It  was  bought  up  by  the  navy  from  a  private  company 
in  April,  37  Meiji  (1904),  and  when  in  April  of  the  next  year 
the  Temporary  Naval  Briquette  Manufactory  was  established, 
a  mining  branch  of  the  same  factory  was  started  at  this  place, 
and  the  old  company's  name  was  consequently  changed  to  the 
Mining  Branch  of  the  Briquette  Manufactory;  but  in  April, 
45  Meiji  (1912),  the  mine  was  taken  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Briquette  Manufactory  and  combined  with  the  Naval 
Colliery.  At  the  present  time  the  work  is  not  performed  di- 
rectly by  the  Colliery,  but  by  private  individuals  on  contract. 

This  mine  has  for  its  object  the  mining  of  smokeless  coal  for 
the  use  of  the  Naval  Briquette  Manufactory.  It  is  covered 
by  one  mine  lot  which  has  an  area  of  6,683,920  tsubo  (about 
5,477  acres).  Yearly  outputs  of  the  same  mine  from  41  Meiji 
(1908)  to  I  Taisho  (1912)  are  as  follows: 

Tons 

41  (fiscal  year)  Meiji  (1908) 104,898 

42  "  "      (1909) 70,000 

43  "  "     (1910) 61,200 

44  "  "     (1911) 53,738 

1  "      Taisho  (1912) 47,026 


RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT   TIME  1 55 

(II)  The  Naval  Briquette  Manufactory. — The  work  in  the 
Naval  Briquette  Manufactory  aims  mainly  at  making  bri- 
quette for  war  vessels,  to  be  used  mostly  in  war  time  and  only 
in  practice  or  trials  in  time  of  peace.  As  Japan  is  well  supplied 
with  smokeless  coal,  the  navy  was  not  slow  in  making  a  study  of 
briquette  making,  and  in  fact  had  finished  it,  when,  on  account 
of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  in  37  Meiji  (1904),  it  was  con- 
fronted with  the  necessity  of  smokeless  fuel,  and  in  July  of 
the  same  year  an  office  for  naval  briquette  making  was  set  up 
atTokuyama,  Yamaguchi  Prefecture.  The  establishment  was, 
in  April  of  the  next  year,  named  the  Temporary  Naval  Bri- 
quette Manufactory,  and  placing  its  Briquette  Making  De- 
partment at  Tokuyama  and  Mining  Branch  at  Omine,  started 
its  briquette-making  work  in  May  of  the  same  year.  In 
January,  39  Meiji  (1906),  its  name  was  changed  to  the  Na- 
val Briquette  Manufactory.  In  April,  45  Meiji  (1912),  the 
Omine  Mining  Branch  was  transferred  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Naval  Colliery. 

The  general  condition  of  the  work  in  the  same  manufactory 
is  as  follows  (ist  fiscal  year,  Taisho — 1912):  Fixed  capital, 
1,200,000  yen;  factories,  6;  motors,  8,766  horse  power;  coal 
consumed  (in  a  year),  11,626  tons;  workmen,  actual  number, 
212  (at  the  end  of  i  (fiscal)  Taisho — 191 2).  Working  number, 
82,579;  coal  carriers,  average,  about  500;  expenses  for  material, 
2,613,563.54  yen;  expenses  for  making  briquette,  147,167.18 
yen. 

We  have  completed  our  description  of  the  outline  of  the 
naval  industry  in  Japan,  and  shall  now  give  a  view  of  the  plan 
of  the  factories  by  adding  hereto  a  table  containing  a  summary 
of  the  engines  used  in  the  naval  industries  and  a  table  showing 
the  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  naval  factories,  accord- 
ing to  latest  investigations: 


156 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   HISTORICAL   SURVEY 


Summary  of  Engines  Used  in  Naval  Industry 
(Taken  at  the  end  of  March,  2  Taisho — 1913) 


_ 

Engines 

Coal  Consumed 

Factories 

Number 

Horse 
Power 

Quantity 

Value 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal : 

Construction  Branch 

12 

4 
9 

2,865 

144 

1,360 

Tons 
5,386,900 
4,773,000 
5,537,900 

Yen 

40,134 
26  066 

Dockyard 

Engineering  Branch 

38,895 

Total 

25 

4,369 

15,697,800 

105,095 

Kure  Naval  Arsenal : 

Ordnance  Branch 

158 
28 

145 
135 
317 

2 

5,948 
7,760  ■ 
6,179 
3,666 
29,811 
37 

8,458,601 

21,543,980 

4,595,000 

49,768 

116,084 

27,230 

Torpedo  Branch 

Dockyard 

Engineering  Branch 

Steel  Works 

72,267,375 
825,512 

389,775 
5,060 

Gunpowder  Research  Laboratory 

Total 

785 

53,401 

107,690,468 

587,917 

Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal: 

Construction  Branch 

6 

4 

2 

5,530 

155 

28 

4,962,600 
3,074,500 
4,156,614 

22,597 
14,680 

19,214 

Dockyard 

Engineering  Branch 

Total 

12 

5,713 

12,193,714 

56,491 

Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal: 

Construction  Branch 

48 
104 
102 

2,684 

2,314 
1,602 

13,623,418 
376,570 
533,928 

86,876 
4,089 
5,695 

Dockyard 

Engineering  Branch 

Total 

254 

6,600 

14,533,916 

96,660 

Ryoj  un   Dockyard 

II 

4 
I 

3 

1 

8 

507 

535 

62 

140 

50 
766 

1,875,250 
3,481,491 
2,065,670 

971,030 

299,200 
11,815,960 

11,730 
21,410 
14,372 

7,089 
1,809 

Naval  Arsenal 

Shimose  Powder  Mill 

Repairing  Yard,  Ominato  Second- 
ary Naval  Station 

Repairing  Yard,    Bako   Secondary 
Naval  Station 

Briquette  Manufactory 

55,953 

Total 

28 

2,060 

20,508,601 

112,363 

Grand  total 

1,104 

73,853 

170,624,499 

958,526 

RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR   TO   THE   PRESENT  TIME 


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PART  II 

ECONOMIC  EFFECTS  OF  THE 
MILITARY  INDUSTRIES 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

The  military'  industries  consist  of  the  manufacture  of  mate- 
rials essential  to  the  organization  of  bodies  of  military  forces. 
The  materials  include  all  varieties  of  articles  from  arms,  war 
vessels,  tools,  and  machinery,  to  supplies,  such  as  clothing, 
food,  fuel,  etc.  As  military  or  naval  powers,  which  would 
maintain  independence  in  war,  must  spend  a  greater  part  of 
their  war  funds  for  these  materials,  this  industry  has  much  to 
do  with  their  finance.  Of  late  years,  Japan  has  spent  in  this 
line  above  40  per  cent  of  her  war  funds.  The  industry  thus 
supported  and  carried  on  can  not  but  produce  some  marked 
eflfects  upon  general  economy.  Such  is  especially  the  case 
with  Japan,  because,  as  will  be  fully  mentioned  afterward,  in 
this  country  nearlv  all  of  the  mechanical  industries  which 
apply  mnrlem  science  and  arts  found  their  origin  in  military 
industry,  or  else  developed  under  its  influence.  In  other 
words,  industries  in  Japan  are  mostly  either  the  direct  or  the 
indirect  product  of  this  industry,  and  even  those  which  had  an 
independent  origin  could  develop  only  through  its  help. 
Hence  in  Japan,  this  kind  of  industry  has  the  greatest  influence! 
upon  the  general  industry  of  the  country.  Her  economy  i^ 
directly  affected  by  every  ebb  or  flow  of  such  industry .j  Not 
only  her  manufacturing  industry,  but  also  her  commerce, 
agriculture,  mining,  transportation,  etc.,  go  hand  in  hand  with 
it,  affecting  in  no  small  degree  money  circulation,  prices, 
wages,  and  such  other  conditions  of  the  everyday  life  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  country.  But  that  is  not  all.  The  advance- 
ment of  science  and  arts,  the  diffusion  of  education,  the 
protection  of  laborers — in  these  matters  also,  the  military 
industry  of  Japan  has  been  an  important  factor.  In  short,  ' 
the  degree  of  development  of  a  nation's  military  industry  not 
only  tells  the  strength  of  its  military  preparations,  but  also 
12  161 


1 62  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

serves  as  the  Indicator  of  the  progress  of  its  general  industry 
and  its  economic  status,  as  well  as  the  grade  of  its  civilization. 
So  in  Japan,  the  degree  of  development  of  this  industry  is  the 
sign  post  which  shows  the  degree  of  her  military  strength, 
her  wealth,  her  civilization,  and  the  development  of  her 
national  economy. 


CHAPTER  II 
EFFECTS  ON  INDUSTRIAL  POLICY 

Agriculture  had  been  the  principal  occupation  of  the  Japa- 
nese before  the  Restoration  of  Meiji,  Next  to  it  came  fishery, 
which  was  the  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  coasts, 
while  the  people  of  towns  and  cities  were  engaged  in  trade. 
As  for  the  manufacturing  industry,  only  a  few  handiworkers 
were  engaged  in  such  work,  scattered  here  and  there  in  the 
country ;  and  while  some  home  work  was  found  in  urban  dis- 
tricts, there  hardly  existed  any  factories,  unless  it  were  small 
manufactories  of  certain  kinds  which  were  sometimes  found 
necessary  to  be  set  up  by  either  the  central  government  or  the 
feudal  lords  in  the  construction  of  castles  and  forts,  the  making 
of  weapons  and  the  building  of  warships,  or  else  in  connection 
with  civil  engineering,  such  as  building  roads,  river  channels, 
harbors  and  canals.  Thus,  except  the  handiwork  of  fine  arts, 
the  manufacturing  industry  in  Japan  was  very  much  behind 
other  kinds  of  industries.  As  already  mentioned  in  the  in- 
troduction to  Part  I,  the  Japanese  began  to  realize  the  great 
need  for  manufacturing  modern  arms  and  war  vessels  at  the 
end  of  the  Tokugawa  Shogunate,  as  the  nation  came  m  touch 
with  European  nations.  This  led  to  the  import  of  foreign 
machinery  as  well  as  the  engagement  of  foreign  experts  and 
teachers.  Then,  factories  for  military  manufactures  were 
started  by  the  use  of  the  new  machinery.  At  that  time,  there 
were  not  more  than  ten  factories  of  modem  style  in  the  Em- 
pire, including  both  the  works  of  the  Shogunate  Government 
and  those  of  clans,  and  as  they  were  all  small  and  insignificant, 
their  influence  was  hardly  felt  in  general  industry.  Although, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Aieiji  Era,  these  military  factories  were 
put  upon  an  entirely  new  basis  for  development,  the  economic 
state  of  the  country  yet  allowed  them  no  large  operation. 
But  Japan   had  many  civil  wars  and  foreign  expeditions. 

163 


1 64  MILITARY  industries:  economic  effects 

After  the  Restoration,  the  Internal  Saga  Rebellion  occurred, 
followed  by  those  of  Hagi,  Jumamoto,  and  Kagoshlma,  while 
externally  the  Formosan  Expedition  took  place  and  then  the 
SIno-Japanese  War,  the  North  China  affair  and  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  followed,  each  after  some  Interval  of  time. 
These  wars  caused  the  position  of  the  Empire  more  and  more 
to  be  elevated  and  Its  responsibility  to  be  increased  correspond- 
ingly, at  the  same  time  augmenting  the  wealth  and  resources 
of  the  country,  all  of  which  led  to  the  extension  of  military 
preparations,  and  with  it  the  development  of  the  war  material 
industry,  until  It  reached  the  present  stage  of  prosperity. 
And  the  influence  of  this  growing  military  industry  which  has 
been  felt  throughout  the  Industrial  world  of  Japan  at  this  time, 
is  verv  g^reat.  It  is  true  that  this  industry  and  Industry  In 
general  are  not  the  same  In  the  articles  which  they  produce  and 
in  point  of  perfection  and  finish  of  those  articles,  and  therefore 
are  not  always  common  In  their  economical  features.  But 
such  things  as  the  raw  materials  and  machinery  used  In  the 
one  industry  do  not  differ  much  from  those  used  In  the  other. 
In  foreign  countries,  army  and  navy  stores,  such  as  clothing, 
bedding  and  other  small  articles,  and  provisions  are  not  dif- 
ferent from  what  people  use  in  their  everyday  life,  except  in 
form ;  but  in  Japan,  they  are  very  widely  different.  After  the 
^  Restoration,  Japan  adopted  the  foreign  system  of  military 
organization  and  everything  connected  with  It  was,  at  the 
time,  a  startling  novelty  to  everybody.  Even  Its  name  and 
use  were  incomprehensible  to  the  mass  of  the  people,  so  that 
.it  was  utterly  impossible  to  imitate  or  manufacture  some 
y  kinds  of  war  materials.  This  was  owing  chiefly  to  the  fact 
,  that  Japan  then  had  few  experts  and  workmen  skilled  in 
mechanical  work;  besides,  most  of  the  machinery  and  raw 
^materials  needed  had  to  be  Imported  from  foreign  countries. 
These  technical  and  economical  disadvantages  obliged  her  to 
buy  foreign  stuffs,  beginning  with  arms  and  war  vessels,  and 
including  ordinary  army  and  navy  stores,  such  as  clothing  and 
other  wearing  apparel.  But  upon  reflection.  It  was  seen  that 
all  of  the  materials  required  could  be  produced  In  the  country, 


EFFECTS   ON    INDUSTRIAL   POLICY  1 65 

except  a  few  things  such  as  wool,  iron  and  some  other  minerals, 
certain  kinds  of  fat,  and  chemicals.  Scarcity  of  iron  ores  was 
no  doubt  a  great  hindrance  to  the  development  of  the  military 
industry,  but  even  this  defect  could  be  met  with  to  some  ex- 
tent ;  if  money  and  skill  were  turned  toward  iron  mining,  there 
were  mines  enough  in  the  country  that  would  produce  the 
metal,  even  if  not  of  the  best  quality.  Under  such  circum- 
stances, the  collection  of  such  raw  materials  and  the  manu- 
facture thereof  must  at  once  be  begun  at  home,  if  Japan 
aspired  for  independence  in  weapons  and  economic  benefit. 
At  the  same  time,  laborers  as  well  as  engineers  must  be  trained 
in  order  to  diffuse  technical  knowledge  throughout  the  nation. 
Fortunately,  the  government  realized  this  situation  and  spent 
as  freely  as  finances  allowed  for  buying  up-to-date  tools, 
machinery  and  manufactured  articles  which  might  serve  as 
models,  and  engaging  skilled  engineers  and  workmen  from 
abroad.  At  the  same  time,  the  authorities  encouraged  private 
persons  in  the  line  of  this  class  of  raw  materials  to  start  new 
works  or  extend  old  ones,  while  the  latter  contended  with  all 
difficulties,  hoping  to  obtain  products  equal  to  those  produced 
in  foreign  countries.  The  result  was  that,  despite  the  lateness^ 
of  the  founding  of  those  factories,  their  organization  was 
completed  and  talent  in  the  art  improved,  so  that  their  prod- 
ucts were  gradually  superseding  foreign  goods  in  the  home 
market,  when  there  came  the  wars  with  China  and  Russia 
and  completed  what  had  been  started.  During  these  wars, 
neutral  powers  refused  to  sell  the  Japanese  certain  war  ma- 
terials because  they  were  contraband  of  war.  So  those 
things  had  to  be  obtained  in  the  country.  This  necessity  . 
compelled  the  nation  to  produce  them  at  any  cost,  because  u\/ 
bplligprpnt  sfpitpg  the  orHinary  law  of  economics  is  not  con- 
sidered. Both  the  government  and  people  worked  hard  for  th^ 
same  end  and  succeeded  in  producing  articles  which  had  never 
been  produced  in  the  country  or  else  had  been  produced  only 
in  insufficient  quantities.  After  the  restoration  of  peace, 
people  continued  to  work  in  their  particular  lines  of  industry, 
extending  their  means  and  factories,  until  today  iron  and  nearly 


1 66  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

all  the  materials  used  In  the  military  industry  have  become 
producible  in  the  country.  As  to  manufactured  articles, 
their  quality  has  been  gradually  improving,  since  the  materials 
for  military  manufactures  must  be  of  far  better  quality  than 
those  used  for  general  purposes,  and  this  prevents  the  shame- 
ful inclination  to  careless  and  bad  production.  Moreover, 
most  of  the  raw  materials  of  the  military  industry  are  also  use- 
ful in  general  industry,  so  that  the  popular  demand  for  similar 
articles  has  increased.  Besides,  while  the  manufactured 
alrticles  made  as  war  materials  are  seldom  fit  for  general  use, 
the  tools  and  machines  that  manufacture  them  may  for  the 
most  part  be  used  for  making  other  kinds  of  articles  wanted  by 
the  people  at  large.  Hence  the  rise  of  many  factories  in 
connection   with   the   manufacture   of   these   latter   articles. 

Fnrthprmnrp,  r>np  indiic;tria1  work  k  apf  tn  rau^f^  anntVipr  r>f  a 

similar  kind  and  so  on,  and  the  result  was  the  evolution  of  all 
sorts  of  new  industries"      But  that  is  not  all.     Workmen  who 


had  been  employed  and  trained  in  the  military  industry  went 
to  work  elsewhere  In  private  factories,  or  started  little  works  of 
their  own.  This  has  also  contributed  greatly  to  the  develop- 
ment of  popular  industries.  From  what  has  been  stated 
above,  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  Influence  of  the  military 
industry  upon  the  national  policy  of  industry  in  Japan  Is  great, 
or  greater  than  what  it  would  have  been  in  other  countries, 
because  the  peculiar  condition  of  this  country  since  the  Res- 
toration has  been  such  as  to  bring  that  industry  into  special 
relation  with  general  or  private  Industry. 

Protection  and  Encouragement  of  Industry 

As  a  means  to  the  protection  and  encouragement  of  in- 
dustry, local  governments  or  self-governing  bodies  have  often 
granted  subsidies  to  producers  of  war  materials..  On  the 
other  hand,  the  central  government  or  military  authorities 
have  seldom  given  subsidies,  and  yet  they  have  directly  and 
indirectly  helped  and  protected  them  in  many  Instances.  To 
secure  military  and  economic  independence  in  war,  it  is  Im- 
portant to  have  at  command  the  necessary  raw  materials  no 


EFFECTS   ON    INDUSTRIAL   POLICY 


167 


-n. 


less  than  the  manufactured  articles.  Since  the  Restoration, 
the  Japanese  Government  has  pursued  the  scheme  of  gaining 
such  independence  rapidly,  both  in  point  of  art  and  of  econ- 
omy. As  the  first  step  to  this  end,  protection  and  encourage- 
ment were  extended  to  industry  in  order  to  prepare  _raw 
materials  for  military  manufactures.  As  soon  as  the  system 
of  military  industry  was  put  in  order  after  the  Restoration, 
the  government  issued  instructions  to  the  military  and  naval 
authorities  to  the  following  effect :  The  authorities  should  notr 
refuse  to  use  home  products  for  materials  required  in  military  1 
and  naval  industries  merely  on  account  of  inconvenience  or 
poor  appearance  even  though  they  be  inferior  in  quality  tOj 
foreign  products,  provided  it  did  not  lessen  the  accuracy  and 
strength  of  the  manufactured  articles.  Home  products  should 
be  used  except  when  the  prices  of  domestic  and  foreign  articles 
differ  so  much  that  it  incurs  a  great  loss  to  the  national  finance 
when  they  are  used  in  large  quantities.  -  In  order  to  direct  or 
educate  the  producers  toward  the  improvement  of  industry, 
the  merit  and  fault  of  the  produced  articles  should  be  pointed 
out,  specimens  supplied,  engineers  and  workmen  dispatched, 
and  advice  given  kindly.  On  the  other  hand,  local  govern- 
ments were  instructed  to  encourage  new  industries  and  also  to 
protect  old  ones.  But  at  that  time  economic  conditions  not 
being  advanced,  very  many  materials  for  military  manufac- 
tures were  left  unproduced,  in  spite  of  the  existence  of  such 
raw  materials  in  the  country.  Moreover,  the  output  of  iron, 
which  is  the  most  needed  material,  was  but  scanty,  and  iron 
foundries  of  modern  style  were  wanting.  All  this  was  the 
ever-present  cause  of  the  importing  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
raw  materials  used  in  military  industry.  Such  materials  as 
had  been  used  or  known  from  olden  times  or  such  of  them  as 
could  be  utilized  with  a  little  improvement  were  employed  as 
much  as  possible.  They  were  copper,  brass,  lead,  pig  iron, 
saltpetre,  sulphur,  coal,  petroleum  oil,  lime,  timber,  iron  and 
steel  wares,  hemp,  leather,  vegetable  and  animal  oils,  wax, 
charcoal,  alcohol,  paper,  etc.  Among  these  articles,  many 
were  inferior  in  quality  to,  and  others  cost  more  than  the 


l68  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

foreign  ones,  but  gradually  these  points  were  improved,  and 
the  kinds  of  products  were  increased,  so  that  imports  were 
gradually  decreasing.  However,  when  later  the  Satsuma 
Rebellion  broke  out,  what  the  authorities  could  obtain  in  the 
country  was  only  raw  materials,  or  else  crude  articles;  there 
were  no  real  manufactured  articles  produced,  except  those 
from  private  dockyards,  and  some  small  hand-made  articles. 
This  was  no  doubt  due  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the  articles 
made  for  military  purposes  were  of  such  special  kinds  that 
people  in  general  could  not  use  them,  or  else  their  high  quality 
and  consequent  high  prices  made  them  of  little  demand  in  the 
economic  condition  of  that  time,  and  were  therefore  unmarket- 
able. It  was  evident,  however,  that  if  the  general  condition  of 
industry  and  of  society  improved,  there  were  many  articles 
used  in  military  industry  that  could  be  used  for  general  pur- 
poses as  well,  such  as  tools  and  instruments,  machines,  steam, 
electric  and  gas  apparatus  and  engines,  rivets,  nails,  electric 
wire  and  cable,  certain  kinds  of  paints  and  varnishes,  dyestuffs, 
woolen  stuffs,  pumps  and  fire  engines,  crucibles,  cast  metal 
wares,  leather  goods,  wooden  wares,  etc.  These  articles, 
with  the  exception  of  certain  kinds  of  machinery,  were  those 
that  could  be  made  in  Japan ;  but  the  fact  was  that  they  were 
not  made,  and  were  imported  to  a  large  amount.  So  it  was 
time  now  to  protect  and  encourage  the  production  of  manu- 
factured articles,  as  the  case  had  been  with  raw  materials  some 
^ars  before.  To  accomplish  this,  crude  or  finished  materials 
for  arms,  ammunition,  clothing,  etc.,  used  in  the  said  war  were 
mostly  ordered  from  specially  appointed  individuals  or  com- 
panies at  standard  fixed  prices  profitable  to  them.  This 
amounted  to  an  indirect  subsidy,  and  factories  were  estab- 
lished in  localities  where  army  divisions  were  garrisoned,  for 
the  purpose  of  manufacturing  war  materials,  and  soon  became 
suppliers  also  for  the  general  market.  The  factories  thus 
established  and  remaining  to  this  day  laid  then  the  founda- 
tions of  their  present  well-to-do  positions  by  selling  their 
products  largely  to  military  factories.  Industries  in  such 
materials  as  timber  specially  and  largely  used  in  military  and 


EFFECTS    ON    INDUSTRIAL    POLICY  1 69 

naval  factories  and  wool  for  the  government  woolen  cloth 
factories  were  started  as  the  result  of  the  earnest  encourage- 
ment given  by  the  military  authorities  at  that  time.  Along 
with  the  extension  of  military  preparations  after  the  Satsuma 
Rebellion,  industries  in  this  line  made  some  noticeable  develop- 
ment. A  good  many  things  made  remarkable  advancement  in 
this  period.  Among  them  may  be  mentioned  certain  kinds  of 
mineral,  vegetable  and  animal  oils,  leather  goods,  chemicals, 
building  materials,  thistle  nut  for  bristling  woolen  fabrics, 
which  had  hitherto  been  large  or  entirely  imported. 

At  the  opening  of  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  war  materials 
of  greai^  variety  and  amount Jhad  to  be  hastily  provided,  and 
those  which  could  not  be  produced  at  once  in  the  military  fac- 
tories, or  others  whirh  rmilH  nrTt  hp  rmpnrtpd  irff~W7irPf7^ume 


or  on  account  of  the  rules  of  contraband  of  war,  all  had  to  be 
'made  m  private  factories,  the  work  of  which  was  consequently 
increasedvery  suddenly.  Therefore,  the  authorities  gave 
every  convenience  they  could  to  those  factories,  and,  by  joint 
effort  with  the  latter,  worked  in  the  direction  of  the  develop- 
ment of  these  industries,  so  that  all  the  articles  necessary  for 
the  war  were  fully  supplied  without  hindrance.  As  a  result  of 
this,  the  production  of  raw  materials  and  manufactured  goods 
in  private  factories,  which  had  been  thus  started  or  enlarged 
during  the  war,  was  not  only  continued,  but  extended  more 
and  more  after  the  war,  keeping  pace  with  the  post-bellum  res- 
toration and  expansion  works  of  the  army  and  the  navy  and 
the  general  improvement  of  economic  conditions.  The  princl\ 
pal  industries  newly  started  during  this  war  were  as  follows: 
copper,  iron,  electricity,  gas,  castings,  crucibles,  machinery, 
ships,  clothing,  boota-and  shoes,  leather  wares,  canned  goods. 
Together  with  the  industries  in  these  articles,  industries  in 
raw,  crude  and  refined  materials  connected  with  them  made 
also  remarkable  development.  All  this  was  due  to  the  fact 
that  during  the  war  efforts  were  made  by  the  authorities  to 
draw  great  quantities  of  supplies  from  private  producers  by 
offering  them  liberal  prices;  especially,  for  those  articles  which 
required  special  encouragement,  purchase  was  made  by  free 


1 70  MILITARY   industries:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

ntract  or  limited  tender ;  factory  houses  and  land  were  leased 
or  sold  to  accommodate  the  producers ;  engineers  and  workmen 
were  adviseH  and  taught;  and  other  adequate  measures  were 
taken  by  the  government  in  order  to  encourage  and  protect  in- 
dustries. After  that,  up  to  the  time  of  the  Russo-Japanese 
War,  such  big  industries  as  iron  manufacturing,  shipbuilding, 
and  iron  works,  which  stand  in  close  relation  to  military  in- 
dustry, together  with  other  industries  such  as  stock  farming, 
timber  manufacture,  mining,  weaving,  woolen  fabric  manufac- 
ture, cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  tanning,  etc.,  were  speedily 
Y^dvanced,  and  flourished. 

As  the  Russo-Japanese  War  was  fought  on  a  scale  many 
times  larger  than  the  war  with  China,  it  was  natural  that  arms 
and  ammunition,  ships,  implements  and  other  war  materials 
were  required  in  immense  quantities  in  that  war;  and  they  were 
made  in  military  and  private  factories  to  an  unprecedentedly 
large  amount,  as  there  was,  just  as  in  the  previous  war,  the 
necessity  of  speedy  supply  and  the  suspension  of  importation 
of  contraband  of  war.  This  exercised  a  remarkable  influence 
upon  domestic  industry.  Not  onlv  in  manufacturing  ja^ 
dustry,  but  in  ag-riculture.  forestry,  mining,  and  every  other 
]ine.  a  verv  great  advancement  was  made.  In  fact,  the  war 
was  a  turning  point  in  the  history  of  Japanese  industry.  After 
the  war,  the  newly  started  or  developed  industries  were  ex- 
tended more  than  ever,  owing,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Sino-Japa- 
nese  War,  to  the  post-bellum  restoration,  the  expansion  of  mili- 
tary preparations,  etc.  Moreover,  the  government,  availing 
itself  of  this  opportunity  to  secure  independence  in  war,  en- 
couraged the  use  of  domestic  articles,  which  gave  them  another 
impetus,  and  has  now  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  Japanese 
industries  on  an  equal  footing  with  their  foreign  rivals. 

It  is  difficult  to  enumerate  the  diverse  industrial  works  which 
arose  after  the  war.  To  these  the  military  and  naval  authori- 
ties extended  protection  in  various  ways.  The  most  effective 
means  of  protection  was  to  buy  their  products  by  free  con- 
tract, or  by  limited  tender,  which  allows  only  those  persons 
who  are  appointed  to  bid  for  sale.     This  latter  method,  seem- 


EFFECTS   ON   INDUSTRIAL   POLICY  I7I 

ingly  not  so  effective,  worked  in  practice  as  well  as  a  subsidy, 
because  war  materials  are  sold  in  great  quantities,  and  com- 
paratively high  prices  are  commanded  by  them,  as  there  are 
not  ^o  many  competitors  in  this  case  as  there  would  be  other- 
wise, and,  moreover,  the  amount  of  demand  is  constant  and 
the  price  seldom  undergoes  any  sudden  changes.  The  pro- 
ducers thus  stand  on  a  very  solid  basis.  This  system  may 
have  the  evils  attached  to  monopoly ;  but  it  was  unavoidable 
as  a  means  of  protection  for  domestic  industry,  when  the  eco- 
nomic condition  of  the  country  was  not  advanced.  It  is  still 
more  excusable  considering  that  war  materials  must  be  of 
sound  quality  and  require  prompt  delivery,  and,  for  that  rea- 
son, contracts  of  purchase  with  inexperienced  and  less  skilled 
producers  who  may  send  coarse  articles  or  make  unpardonable 
delays  must  be  absolutely  avoided.  Instances  may  be  men- 
tioned here  in  which  protection  is  being  given  to  industries  by 
the  army  and  navy  as  begun  after  the  Russo-Japanese  War. 
We  may  mention  the  industrial  unions  of  Miyazaki  Prefecture, 
under  special  agreement  with  which  the  army  is  buying  all  of 
what  is  produced  in  that  district  of  the  wood  used  for  gun 
stock.  Besides,  the  purchase  of  rice,  barley,  vegetables,  oxen, 
etc.,  as  materials  for  manufacture  of  provisions  is  made  di- 
rectly from  local  industrial  unions  that  they  may  have  as  their 
profit  what  otherwise  would  have  enriched  the  brokers,  and 
have  also  better  chances  of  improving  their  products.  As  for 
the  navy,  it  assisted  in  establishing  the  Japan  Steel  Foundry 
at  Muroran,  and  extended  protection  to  canning  and  briquette 
factories;  and,  with  the  cooperation  of  the  army,  to  zinc  re- 
fining, manufacture  of  sheet  copper,  electric  wire  and  cable 
industry,  iron-pipe  industry,  etc.  All  these  industries  were 
given  advantages  of  some  kind  or  other — their  products  were 
bought,  machines  lent,  experts  dispatched,  and  materials 
sold  to  them  by  the  authorities.  Some  of  them  had  their 
businesses  greatly  facilitated  by  it.  Others  would  never  have 
seen  their  establishment  in  Japan  as  new  industries  but  for 
this  protection.  These  facts  show  how  effective  and  benefi- 
cent the  protective  policy  of  the  government  has  been  upon  , 
industries. 


172  military  industries:  economic  effects 

Technical  Education 

The  foregoing  section  shows  how  greatly  military  industry 
contributed  to  enhance  technical  education  in  Japan.  Here 
we  give  some  concrete  instances  thereof. 

Before  the  Restoration,  when  the  new  light  of  reform 
dawned  upon  the  Japanese  Army  and  Navy,  foreign  teachers 
'were  engaged  to  teach  the  Japanese  in  technical  arts.  The 
men  thus  educated,  together  with  those  who  had  been  abroad 
and  returned  with  modern  technical  knowledge  and  training, 
wpj-p  all  intpndpH  for  the  Hevploprripnt  of  mih'fary  industry. 

After  the  Restoration,  the  army  and  the  navy  were  reorgan- 
ized upon  modefn  systems,  and  then  they  both  endeavored  to 
further  their  industries  bv  engaging  foreign  teachers  and  send- 
ing; pupils  abroad.  At  that  time,  the  economic  condition 
and  education  at  large  were  not  yet  advanced  enough  to  estab- 
lish technical  schools  where  the  modern  mechanical  engineer- 
ing, naval  architecture,  etc.,  might  be  taught.  So  the  military 
and  naval  factories  were  the  only  sources  of  industrial  knowl- 
edge, whence  those  officers,  engineers  and  workmen  who  had, 
been  educated  abroad  were  despatched  or  transferred  to  othep- 
factories,  government,  public  and  private,  as  teachers  in 
industrial  arts^  After  the  Satsuma  Rebellion,  with  the  per- 
fection of  the  military  and  naval  technical  schools,  many 
industrial  schools,  government,  public  and  private,  of  grades 
high  and  common,  were  established,  and  technical  education, 
which  had  been  monopolized  by  the  military  departments 
now  came,  as  a  rule,  to  be  given  by  independent  organs  of  the 
national  education. 

Since  that  time  education  for  technological  engineers  has 
been  generally  given  in  schools.     But  the  work  done  by  those 
who  had  been  specially  trained  at  army  and  navy  factories  as 
teachers  in  the  general  technical  education  of  the  country  is 
not  small,  though  this  system  of  education  is  going  out  of  prac- 
tice, as  school  education  is  becoming  more  and  more  universal. 
/  And  nevertheless,  in  the  matter  of  the  training  of  workmen, 
/     army  and  navy  factories  are  still  recognized  as  authorities  in 
/        industrial  circles.     We  will  therefore  consider  this  subject  on 
N.      the  following  pages: 


EFFECTS   ON   INDUSTRIAL   POLICY  1 73 

There  are  two  special  means  of  training  workmen  of  the 
factories  of  the  army  and  the  navy.  One  is  the  giving  of 
special  training  at  specially  provided  places  of  instruction ;  the 
other,  that  of  practical  training  during  the  men's  daily  work. 
In  some  points,  however,  the  army  and  the  navy  factories 
have  each  their  own  features,  and  it  would  be  more  convenient 
to  treat  them  separately. 

In  the  Army 

The  systems  of  special  education  given  to  apprentice  or 
pupil  workmen  and  of  supplementary  instruction  for  general 
workmen  were  abolished  a  few  years  ago,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  skilled  laborers  could  easily  be  obtained,  while  inex- 
perienced hands  could  be  trained  at  work  with  certain  precau- 
tions, and  that,  as  the  factories  are  mostly  situated  in  large 
cities,  there  are  not  wanting  night  schools  good  enough  to 
supply  the  workmen  with  necessary  knowledge.  Today,  there 
are  but  a  few  small  factories  in  the  more  remote  parts  of  the 
country  provided  with  night  schools  of  their  own  on  a  small 
scale  as  organs  for  supplementary  training;  and  so,  for  the 
most  part,  the  workmen  in  military  employment  are  trained  in 
the  factories  in  their  working  hours. 

Since  the  Restoration,  the  armv  factories  have  produced^ 
a  startling  number  of  trained  workmen.  The  great  majority 
of  them  who  left  with  sufficient  skill  have  served  in  various 
other  factories,  or  have  been  engaged  in  their  own  works ;  and 
thus  the  good  done  by  the  army  factories  to  the  industry  of 
Japan  is  great.  At  present,  as  in  the  past,  trained  workmen 
are  being  continually  sent  out  to  g^eneral  industry,  while  thev 
are  always  recruited  with  new  men,  who  go  through  the  same 
process  of  training.  A  brief  statement  of  the  after-careers  of 
those  trained  workmen  is  as  follows: 

Those  who  have  been  trained  in  the  manufacture  of  arms  are, 
according  to  their  special  acquirements,  employed  at  a  pre- 
mium in  iron  and  steel  foundries,  iron  works,  dockyard  build- 
ing companies,  electric  companies,  and  other  small  industrial 
works,  besides  a  few  who  run  small  factories  on  their  owir 
account. 


174  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

Workmen  trained  in  the  clothing  manufacture  in  the  army 
can  apply  their  skill  in  making  caps,  uniforms,  overcoats, 
underwear,  drawers,  etc.,  in  similar  tailoring  works  outside. 
So,  if  they  leave  the  service  by  discharge  or  of  their  own  ac- 
cord, they  readily  enough  enter  other  factories  or  independently 
become  tailors.  Besides,  as  the  use  of  sewing  machines  has 
become  general  of  late,  some  workmen  find  a  way  to  use  them 
at  home  in  private  occupation. 

Workmen  skilled  in  leather  work  usually  start  for  them- 
selves a  business  of  shoemaking,  harness- making,  etc.,  or  are 
employed  by  companies  or  individuals  manufacturing  those 
articles.     They  are  very  welcome  in  the  trade. 

Those  who  have  been  trained  in  the  woolen  cloth  manufac- 
ture are  in  great  demand  by  woolen  cloth  factories,  spinning 
companies,  etc. 

Men  who  have  been  trained  in  the  provision  department  are 
engaged  by  cahning  or  baking  factories,  while  some  who  have 
skill  enough  start  their  own  canning  works  on  a  small  scale,  or 
engage  in  making  cans. 

Besides,  workmen  who  have  acquired  the  knowledge  of 
handling  engines,  boilers,  dynamos,  motors,  etc.,  can  be  em- 
ployed in  any  factory  worked  by  machinery,  and  therefore 
have  a  larger  sphere  of  employment. 

In  the  Navy 

/  The  system  of  special  training  is  still  pursued.  Instruction 
is  given  in  and  out  of  the  factories.  The  instruction  in  the 
factory  is  given  principally  within  the  government  factories. 
The  instruction  out  of  the  factory  is  under  the  control  of  the 
cities  or  towns  where  the  factories  are  located,  the  authorities, 
of  course,  cooperating  with  these  cities  or  towns.  Both  sorts 
of  instruction  are  showing  salutary  results. 

Instruction  in  the  Factory. — In  all  naval  arsenals,  the  same 
system  prevails  with  regard  to  the  instruction  of  workmen ;  so 
the  example  of  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal,  which  is  the  largest  of 
all,  will  suffice  to  explain  the  system. 

In  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal,  boys  numbering  three  hundred 


EFFECTS   ON    INDUSTRIAL   POLICY  1 75 

who  have  been  graduated  from  higher  elementary  schools  orl 
been  equallvgducated~and  are  more  than  tourteen  years  old 
are,  after  anexamination.  taken  on  every  vearas^pprenticgsr 
After  being  trained  in  practice  for  one  year  or  more,  they  re- 
ceive technological  education  as  "sedentary  study "^  pupils  for 
a  period  of  four  years.     They  are  obliged  to  serve  for  threcj^ 
years  after  their  graduation. 

Those  workmen  who  are  not  apprentice  workmen,  but  are 
of  superior  attainments  and  good  demeanor,  are  picked  out  and 
taught  in  technology,  as  "sedentary  study"  pupils. 

The  "sedentary  pupils"  who  have  completed  their  term  of 
technological  study  with  success  or  those  workmen  who  have 
equal  attainment  may  be  admitted  to  the  postgraduate  course, 
if  they  desire  it.     The  period  of  study  is  one  year. 

Private  regulations  relating  to  the  training  of  workmen  are 
very  minute  and  thorough  for  work  of  this  class.  They  differ 
but  slightly  in  each  of  the  departments,  such  as  arms  manufac- 
ture, shipbuilding,  etc.,  as  the  nature  of  work  is  not  the  same. 
However  worthy  they  may  be,  we  shall  omit  enumerating  them 
here  for  the  sake  of  brevity. 

Instruction  Out  of  the  Factory. — To  give  workmen  supple- ~1 
mentary  knowledge,  there  are  industrial  supplementary 
schools  or  technical  supplementary  schools,  as  they  are  called 
by  either  name,  established  in  the  offices  of  the  cities  or  towns 
where  naval  arsenals  are  located.  These  institutions  must 
necessarily  have  naval  workmen  as  their  pupils,  if  their  origi- 
nal aim  is  considered,  and  in  fact  they  have  such  chiefly;  but  at 
the  same  time  they  are  admitting  ordinary  pupils  from  families 
residing  in  the  place.  The  school  has  for  its  object  to  put  the^ 
leisure  hours  of  the  workmen  to  good  purposes.  It  is,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  give  them  industrial  knowledge  and  cultivate  their 
moral  character,  and,  on  the  other,  to  deprive  them  of  opportu- 
nities of  giving  themselves  up  to  dissipation  and  thereby  viti- 
ating the  local  good  manners,  and  actually  it  is  obtaining  good 
results  in  every  such  city.     The  teaching  staff  of  the  school  con- 

*  By  sedentary  study  is  meant  lessons  in  technology  given  along  with  the  practical 
training. 


176  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

sists  of  teachers  of  public  schools  and  engineers  and  inferior 
officials  of  the  navy.  The  regulations  of  these  schools  being 
determined  in  accordance  with  local  customs  and  conditions  of 
the  workmen,  the  educational  work  is  being  thereby  conducted 
satisfactorily. 

The  above  two  methods  of  special  training  are  undoubtedly 
very  effective  in  producing  able  workmen.  But  there  are  a 
great  many  workmen  in  naval  service  who,  like  those  in  the 
army,  are  educated  gradually  in  practice  while  engaged  in  their 
work  and  become  in  course  of  time  excellent  artisans. 
They  are  in  great  demand  in  the  industrial  world,  and  are  con- 
tributing much  to  the  enhancement  of  national  industries. 
Besides,  it  is  customary  with  the  navy,  taking  advantage  of 
the  orders  for  warships  or  machines  it  gives  abroad,  to  send  its 
ablest  workmen  with  the  orders  to  the  foreign  dockyards  or 
factories  and  there  to  let  them  train  themselves  in  those  works. 
After  a  few  years  these  men  return  home  with  the  knowledge 
gained  and  in  no  small  degree  impart  benefit  to  national 
L.  industries. 

The  advantage  of  all  this  training  of  workmen  is  evident  in 
discipline  as  well  as  in  skill  of  work.  They  are  subjected  to 
strict  discipline  at  the  factory,  and  this  unconsciously  fosters 
in  them  the  spirit  of  order  and  regular  habits.  Thus  they  be- 
come examples  for  workmen  of  other  factories. 

Of  factories  of  the  army,  clothing  factories  and  provision 
factories  employ  many  female  hands.  Those  who  are  employed 
in  the  former  generally  start  private  tailoring,  when  they 
leave  the  factories  after  two  or  three  years  of  service.  Re- 
cently these  tailoresses  are  increasing  in  number,  much  to  the 
advantage  of  the  community. 

Discovery  and  Invention 

As  the  direct  object  of  military  industry  is  the  manufacture 
of  arms,  ammunition,  ships,  and  other  war  materials,  inven- 
tion and  discovery  in  the  same  industry  are  limited  to  such 
military  articles,  and  therefore  but  comparatively  few  of  them 
have  influence  upon  the  general  economic  world.     Especially 


EFFECTS   ON   INDUSTRIAL   POLICY  1 77 

is  this  true  of  inventions  in  arms.  And  as  the  manufactured 
products  of  miHtary  industry  can  only  be  used  by  the  army  or 
navy,  it  is  natural  that  inventions  in  this  realm  should  have 
little  concern  with  general  industry.  But  it  is  different  with 
raw  materials.  In  this  field  many  inventions  and  discoveries 
have  been  made,  caused  by  the  presence  of  the  ever-imperative 
demand  of  the  military  industry.  Military  industry  aims  at 
excellence  of  products  without  considering  gain  as  in  private 
factories,  and  time  and  expense  are  not  spared  to  accomplish 
its  end.  So  it  makes  very  rapid  progress  in  the  improvement 
of  its  manufactures,  excelling  other  manufacturing  industries. 
Improvement  in  raw  materials  must  keep  up  with  it.  Experi- 
^nents  and  investigations  are  necessary,  and  the  result  is  often 
an  invention  or  a  discovery.  Ihus,  in  the  number  of  inven- 
tions  and  discoveries,  too,  the  military  industry  is  greater  than 
otlier  industries,  but  as  has  already  been  said,  the  mtluence 
of  these  inventions  and  discoveries  upon  economic  interests  in 
general  is  limited,  and  though  it  is  difficult  to  show  this  with 
mathematical  precision,  as  it  depends  on  kinds,  time,  etc.,  it 
is  certain  that  they  have  smaller  range  of  application  than 
ordinary  inventions  and  discoveries.  The  following  is  a  sum- 
mary of  inventions  which,  having  been  made  by  military  fac- 
tories or  else  assisted  by  them  in  their  completion,  are  con- 
sidered to  be  usable  for  general  economic  purposes. 

As  finished  articles  in  the  manufacture  of  arms  and  machines, 
we  can  enumerate  only  wireless  telegraphs  and  other  appara- 
tus of  communication,  Miyabara  and  Kansei-Honbu  (Ship 
Administration  Office)  boilers,  etc. ;  but  in  regard  to  raw  mate- 
rials we  find  very  many  important  inventions  and  discoveries 
peculiar  to  Japan,  for  instance,  in  the  manufacture  of  steel, 
sheet  copper,  zinc,  pipes,  electric  wire  and  cable.  These  in- 
ventions are,  after  all,  the  result  of  secrecy  in  foreign  factories 
in  the  same  lines  of  work,  or  the  fruit  of  effort  to  produce  ma- 
terials of  the  best  quality. 

In  the  manufacture  of  ammunition,  safe  explosives  for 
mines  and  powder  for  sporting  or  hunting  guns  are  products 
prepared  by  special  Japanese  processes  and  are  in  great  de- 
mand by  the  public. 


178  MILITARY   industries:   ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

In  fuel  manufacture,  there  are  many  devices  peculiar  to 
Japan  in  the  making  of  smokeless  coal,  coal  breakers,  etc.,  and 
all  these  can  also  be  used  in  private  enterprises. 

Inventions  and  discoveries  in  the  line  of  clothing  and  provi- 
sion manufacture  require  little  secrecy,  unlike  those  relating 
to  arms,  and  can  be  made  public  in  full.  But  the  nature  of 
those  works  is  capable  of  producing  only  such  inventions  as  are 
comparatively  trifling,  some  of  them  being  of  too  little  value  to 
be  enumerated.  Only  those  inventions  that  are  applied  to 
manufactures  of  large  quantities,  therefore,  will  be  mentioned 
here. 

Clothing  Manufacture 

(a)  Leather- Preserving  Oil. — Formerly  several  kinds  of  oil 
extracted  from  fat  were  used  to  prevent  the  cracking  and 
hardening  of  leather  and  leather  articles,  but  they  were  not  ef- 
fective, and  moreover  the  articles  so  oiled  had  a  tendency  to 
mold.  To  remedy  these  defects  a  certain  compound  of  fat  oil 
and  mineral  and  vegetable  oils  was  invented.  It  proved  to  be 
absolutely  effective  after  a  few  years  of  experiment. 

(b)  Steam  Pressing  Device. — This  was  devised  to  smooth 
out  the  creases  of  woolen  cloth  and  generally  to  effect  even 
smoothing. 

(c)  Shaping  Machine  for  Upper  Shoe  Leather. — This  is  a 
machine  made  to  quickly  give  the  upper  shoe  leather  a  curva- 
ture in  the  shape  of  the  foot. 

(d)  Shaping  Machine  for  the  Hind  Part  of  Shoes. — This  is 
a  device  to  give  the  hind  part  of  shoes  quickly  the  roundness 
of  the  heel. 

The  above  have  all  been  tried  with  good  results. 

Provision  Manufacture 

Biscuits  baked  by  fermentation  system,  air-system  canned 
meat,  can  strapping,  and  asphalt  varnish  for  cans  are  special 
products  or  processes  of  the  Provision  Department.  Espe- 
cially "cakes  of  soy  extract"  are  quite  a  new  invention.  Of 
these  inventions,  the  method  of  can  strapping  has  been  adopt- 
ed by  some  private  factories. 


EFFECTS   ON    INDUSTRIAL   POLICY  1 79 

Woolen  Cloth  Manufacture  ^ 

(a)  An  invention  for  extracting  the  grease  of  wool  from  the 
water  in  which  wool  has  been  washed  for  utilization  in  other 
warp. 

(b)  As  the  suds  which  are  used  for  washing  woolen  fabrics 
catch  olein  oil  used  in  preparing  wool,  besides  containing  what 
had  been  compounded  in  the  soap,  a  process  was  invented  to 
get  the  oil  out  of  the  foul  water. 

These  are  from  what  are  known  as  the  inventions  of  the 
factories.  Besides,  there  are  many  inventions  made  by  en- 
gineers or  workmen  of  military  factories  through  the  experi- 
ence they  had  acquired  during  their  long  factory  life,  which 
have  proved  of  great  benefit  to  the  Japanese  military  industry 
as  well  as  to  the  economic  interest  of  the  country.  Un- 
fortunately there  are  no  statistics  with  regard  to  these  engi- 
neers and  workmen  who  have  their  patent  or  other  rights 
registered,  but  it  is  a  fact  that  they  apply  for  patents  in  large 
numbers. 


CHAPTER  III 
EFFECTS  ON  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRY 

The  business  of  military  factories  and  that  of  private  fac- 
tories must  be  conducted  differently,  as  their  products  differ 
in  kind  and  quality  and  the  military  work  generally  requires 
secrecy.  Yet  the  industry  of  the  army  and  the  general  in- 
dustries of  a  nation  can  not  be  completely  separated  when  the 
needs  in  time  of  war  and  in  the  development  of  general  in- 
dustry are  taken  into  consideration.  On  the  contrary,  they 
are  ever  approaching  nearer  to  each  other  as  the  civilization 
of  the  world  advances.  If  they  be  completely  separated  or 
their  progress  unequal,  imports  will  increase,  resulting  in  the 
outflow  of  specie.  In  time  of  peace,  and  in  time  of  belliger- 
ency, war  will  be  unfavorably  affected  by  the  lack  of  materials 
in  consequence  of  the  stoppage  of  imports  because  the  com- 
munication is  more  or  less  interrupted  and  of  the  international 
relations  which  impose  some  check  upon  trade.  But  if  they 
go  on  hand  in  hand,  the  materials  wanting  will  be  found  in 
private  factories  and,  moreover,  skilled  workmen  of  one  can 
meet  the  urgent  demand  of  the  other.  For  these  reasons,  the 
development  of  general  industry  must_be_encouragedJf_Dlili^ 
Tary  mduriLry  it,  Lo  bo  made  cfficientT  The  kinds  and  the  prog- 
"ress  of  the  manufacturing  industries  of  a  country  depend  on 
its  natural  condition,  the  wealth  and  purchasing  power  of  its . 
people,  its  trade,  politics,  etc. ;  and  so  it  is  difficult  to  procure 
"from  the  piivaLe  iudusLiieb  jUsftor  military" industry  raw 
materials,  tools,  machines,  workmen  that  are  suited  to  its  re- 
quirement. For  instance,  when  the  economic  condition  of  a 
country  is  yet  in  its  infancy,  the  supplying  of  the  tools,  in- 
struments, machines,  etc.,  necessary  for  military  industry  is 
out  of  the  question,  for  we  can  not  expect  the  mechanical  in- 
dustry of  the  country  to  be  so  developed  and  ready,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  demand  for  these  articles  is  scarce  in  gen- 

180 


EFFECTS   ON   MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRY  l8l 

eral,  and  that  there  is  little  occasion  to  export  them.  As  re- 
gards iron,  which  is  the  most  essential  material  for  military  in- 
dustry, it  is  a  matter  of  course  that  iron  foundries  are  not  to  be 
found  when  the  general  demand  for  iron  is  but  small.  But  the 
national  industry  must  be  developed,  and  to  do  this  it  must  be 
led  to  adapt  itself  to  the  circumstances  of  the  country.  At  the 
same  time  that  the  economic  condition  of  the  nation  is  im- 
proved, a  definite  industrial  policy  must  be  established  to  suit 
the  state  of  the  country  and  the  needs  of  the  age.  This  has 
been  the  course  taken  by  the  Japanese  Government  since  the 
Restoration,  and  the  advancement  of  the  national  manufac- 
turing industry  is  the  result.  Japan  from  the  military  stand-" 
point  had  in  the  past  felt  the  necessity  of  rapidly  promoting 
private  industries,  and  therefore  the  progress  of  these  in- 
dustries is  in  a  great  measure  identical  with  that  of  military 
affairs.  In  Japan,  military  progress  was  more  rapid  than '^ 
economic  progress.  If  her  manufacturing  industry  had  been 
left  to  itself  to  advance,  its  progress  would  not  have  been  so 
rapid  as  it  was.  But  the  circumstances  did  not  admit  of  its 
gradual  progress,  but  forced  it  to  advance  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
It  is  not  to  be  doubted  that  a  quicker  time  even  by  decades  has 
been  made  by  industrial  progress  in  Japan  through  the  constant 
guidance  and  support  of  the  military  industry,  which  has 
always  been  comparatively  more  advanced.  The  wars  and  the . 
extension  of  military  preparations  were  practically  the  most 
timely  industrial  policy  to  stimulate  the  manufacturing  in- 
dustry of  Japan  to  its  present  day  achievement.  "■^ 

The  influence  of  military  industry  upon  private  industries 
has  already  been  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter.  But  its 
range  was  limited  to  factory  industries,  and  did  not  touch  the 
spheres  of  domestic  industries  and  manual  industries,  and 
even  in  the  former  no  precise  details  of  the  influence  were 
given.  Hence  the  presentation  in  this  chapter,  beginning  with 
the  second  section,  of  the  influence  of  military  industry  upon 
industries  in  general,  divided  into  three  parts,  factory  industry, 
domestic  industry  and  manual  industry,  to  each  of  which  a 
section  will  be  given. 


<^ 


1 82  military  industries:  economic  effects 

Factory  Industry 

Advantages  Derived  by  General  Factory  Industry 

We  can  not  exaggerate  too  much  the  past  influence  of  mili- 
tary industry  upon  the  economic  world  of  Japan.     It  was  wide 
and  far  reaching.     But  it  was  especially  remarkable  in  the 
^manufacturing   industry.     This   influence   had    the   positive 
tendency  of  promoting  the  industry  and  little  impeded  its 
conduct  or  development.     Advantages  given  to  general  in^ 
dustry  by  military  authorities  lay  chiefly  in  the  encourage-j 
ment  of  enterprise,  convenience  given  to  management,  advice 
in  industrial  arts,   ordering  and   purchasing  products,   etc.,/ 
which,  as  already  seen  in  the  foregoing  chapter,  was  effectual\ 
in  bringing  on  the  general  development  of  private  industries. 
We  shall  now  state  in  a  more  concrete  manner  the  influence  of 
military  industry  exerted  upon  more  important  branches  of 
industry,  such  as  arms  manufacture,  shipbuilding,  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and  other  materials,  etc. 

Arms  Manufacture. — The  private  industry  most  open  to  the 
influence  of  arms  manufacture  is  the  manufacture  of  materials 
necessary  to  the  production  of  arms.     As  arms  must  be  most 
carefully  and  strongly  made,  the  greatest  attention  is  paid  to 
the  selection  of  materials.     Domestic  materials  essential  to 
/the  manufacture  of  arms  are  replaced  by  materials  imported 
j/    from  foreign  countries  if  found  to  be  of  inferior  quality  in 
(        even  the  slightest  degree.     Imports,  therefore,  form  a  promi- 
v^  ncnt  part  in  arms  manufacture.     This  is  one  great  drawback 
tothe  independence  of  national  arms  and  also  causes  an  out- 
flow of  specie,  which  is  a  most  deplorable  condition  for  a 
country.     liowever  skilful  mav  be  the  accomplishment  ^ 
military   and    naval    factories,    the    military,    financial    and 
economic  objects  of  a  country  are  unattainable  with  regard  to 
the  management  of  the  factories,  unless  the  private  industries 
are  developed  which  produce  for  them  the  materials  to  work 
with.     The  Japanese  Government  saw  this  need  and  gave  as- 
sistance in  establishing  and  developing  private  factories  which 
had  for  their  chief  object  the  supplying  of  the  necessary  mate- 


EFFECTS   ON   MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRY  1 83 

rials  to  the  government  factories.  As  has  often  been  stated, 
the  government  took  various  measures  to  this  end,  and 
especially  laid  stress  upon  the  manufacture  of  metallic  mate- 
rials. But  as  the  management  of  steel  founding  by  private 
companies  is  somewhat  difficult,  the  military  authorities  ini- 
tiated  the  work  in  the  Osaka  Arsenal,  while  the  na\^'  started 
one  in  the  Kure  Naval  Arsenal,  and  ^et  a  livp  pvamplp  hpfnrp 
the  people. 

After  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  the  demand  for  materials 
for  arms  greatly  increased  in  consequence  of  the  expansion  of 
military  forces  as  a  post-bellum  measure.  Finished  arms,  too, 
became  of  such  great  demand  that  the  arsenal  often  found  it 
difficult  to  keep  up  with  it.  In  the  face  of  these  circumstances, 
there  was  not  even  one  private  iron  foundry  or  arms  manu- 
factory in  the  whole  empire.  In  Europe  and  America,  war 
implements,  whether  arms  or  not,  are  manufactured  at  private 
factories  at  the  same  time  as  they  are  manufactured  at  govern- 
ment factories;  these  factories, governmental  and  private,  work 
together,  and  acting  in  common,  not  only  sustain  independence 
in  war  implements,  but  try  to  get  what  profit  would  accrue  to 
their  national  wealth  by  manufacturing  foreign  orders.  These 
private  factories  are  showing  even  better  results  than  govern- 
mental ones,  contributing  greatly  to  the  improvem.ent  of  arms 
and  other  war  implements.  The  establishment  in  this  country 
of  a  large  private  company,  as  in  other  manufacturing  indus- 
tries and  shipbuilding,  where  at  the  same  time  steel  and  arms 
manufacture  could  be  conducted,  was  felt  necessary  from  the 
military  point  of  view  and  from  the  interest  of  national  econ- 
omy. Thus,  following  the  example  of  foreign  countries,  the 
Japan  Steel  Works  was  established  in  the  40th  year  of  Meiji 
(1Q07)  through  the  assistance  of  the  army  and  v^yy  r^f-pc^rt^ 
ments;  and  it  began  its  work  in  Januar^^  44  ^leiii  (lOii).  It  is 
capitalized  at  15,000,000  yen,  and  has  ten  workshops,  viz., 
finishing,  rough  finishing,  tempering,  forging,  casting,  pattern 
and  mold  making,  blacksmithy,  laboratory,  electric  power 
house  and  boiler  room,  and  gas  generating  furnace.  The  J 
articles  made  by  the  company  are  as  follows :  Gun  barrels  up  to 


184  MILITARY   industries:    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

14-inch  calibre  and  gun  carriages  for  army  and  navy,  ammuni- 
tion hoists,  torpedo  tubes,  steel  castings  up  to  100  tons,  steel 
forgings  up  to  80  tons,  iron  castings  up  to  100  tons,  cast-iron 
projectiles,  articles  of  gun  metal  and  brass  up  to  30  tons, 
submerged  torpedo  tubes,  phosphorus  for  fish  torpedoes, 
bronze  wares,  materials  for  gun  carriages,  materials  for  fuses, 
metal  fittings  for  ships,  propeller  cocks  and  valves,  condensers, 
hangers  and  bearings,  cast  steel,  cast  iron,  gun  metal,  machines 
of  all  kinds  for  factories,  etc.  At  present,  the  company  not 
only  furnishes  the  Japanese  Army  and  Navy  with  necessaries, 
but  also  exports  war  materials  to  neighboring  and  other 
countries.  It  is  the  only  private  establishment  in  the  coun- 
try which  manufactures  arms,  and  it  owes  its  origin  and  ex- 
ktpnrp  pntirply  tr>  the  militarv  industry. 

Moreover,  the  following  are  the  somewhat  large  factories 
which,  either  as  their  sole  business  or  as  a  part  but  main  ob- 
ject, produce  materials  and  tools  and  machines  for  the  manu- 
facture of  arms: 

The  Sumitomo  Sheet  Coooer  Manufactory  (Osaka),  The 
Tokyo  Balance  Manufactory  (Tokyo),  The  Tokyo  Rope  Co., 
Ltd.  (Tokyo),  The  Tokyo  Spring  Manufactory  (Tokyo),  The^ 
Tobata  Castmg  Co.,  Ltd.  (Fukuoka),  The  Osaka  Zinc  Co..^.: 
Ltd.  (Osaka).  The  Shinagawa  White  Brick  Co..  Ltd.  (Tokyo)/;! 
The  Nippon  Ceramic  Co.,  Ltd.  (Tokyo),  The  Osaka  Electrd- 
copper  Refining  Co.,  Ltd.  (Osaka),  The  Yamanaka  Copper 
Works  (Osaka),  The  Yokkaichi  Oil  Factory  (Ise),  The  Settsiu 
Oil  Manufacturing  Co.,  Ltd.  (Osaka),  The  Yokohama  Wi^e 
Manufacturing  Co.,  Ltd.  (Kanagawa),  The  Sumitomo  Wiife 
Manufactory  (Osaka),  The  Fujikura  Wire  Co.,  Ltd.  (Tokyo), 
The  United  Electric  and  Wire  Co.,  Ltd.  (Tokyo),  The  Nippo^ 
Wire  Co.,  Ltd.  (Tokyo),  The  Oriental  File  Co.  (Osaka),  Th^ 
Tanaka  File  Manufactory  (Osaka),  The  Seike  File  Manufac- 
tory (Hiroshima),  The  Meiji  Rubber  Factory  (Tokyo),  The 
Mitado  Rubber  Manufacturing  Co.  (Partnership)  (Tokyo), 
The  Nippon  Rubber  Co.,  Ltd.  (Tokyo),  The  Kawasaki  Dock- 
yard, Ltd.  (Hyogo),The  Nishimura  Machine  Factory  (Tokyo) , 
the   Kanezaka   Factory   (Tokyo),   the   Nagase   Iron  Works 


EFFECTS    ON   MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRY  1 85 

(Saitama),  The  Nitta  Belt  Manufactory  (Osaka),  The  Bando 
Cotton-belt  Co.  (Hyogo),  The  Izumi  Lead  Pipe  Manufactory 
(Osaka) ,  The  Okumura  Electric  Co.  (Kyoto) ,  the  Kanda  Rivet 
Manufactory  (Tokyo),  The  Yamamoto  Screw  Rivet  Manu- 
factory (Tokyo),  The  Ota  Casting  Mill  (Tokyo),  the  Nagoya 
Factory  (Saitama),  The  Sekiguchi  Manufactory  (Saitama). 

We  can  almost  say  that  the  above-mentioned  companies  were 
established  and  supported  solely  by  military  industrv^if  we 
examine  into  the  motive  of  their  foundation,  their  history,  theiry 
market  and  the  amount  of  their  manufacture.     They  stand 
as  leading  powers  in  the  industrial  world  of  Japan,  having 
handsome  capitals  and  numerous  workmen;  but,  if  once  the' 
relation  between  these  companies  and  military  factories  comes 
to  an  end,  most  of  them  must  be  dissolved,  or  else  cut  down 
their  plans  and  exist  under  adverse  conditions,  so  great  is  the 
influence  of  the  military  industry  of  arms  upon  industries  in  / 
general. 

Shipbuilding. — The  number  of  shipbuilding  yards  built 
after  the  Restoration  of  Meiji  totals  over  two  hundred,  and 
the  eldest  of  those  which  are  run  on  a  large  scale  are  the 
Mitsubishi  Dockvard  at  Nagasaki  and  the  Kawasaki  Dockyard 
at  Kobe.  These  two  yards  were  established  in  the  days  of  the 
Tokugawa  Shogunate,  the  former  then  being  the  navy  yard 
of  the  feudal  government  and  the  latter  the  iron  works  of  the 
feudal  clan  of  Kanagawa.  It  is  thus  obvious  that  these  dock- 
yards owe  their  origin  to  military  manufactories.  Among 
the  rest  which  were  under  the  control  of  the  feudal  government 
were  the  Ishikawa-Jima,  the  Uraga,  and  the  Yokosuka  Dock- 
yards, and  the  Yokohama  Iron  Works.  All  of  these  establish- 
ments were  transferred  to~~the  charge  of  the  Heibusho 
(Department  of  Military  Affairs)  and  the  Kobusho  (De- 
partment of  Industry)  after  the  Restoration.  For  more  thanA 
ten  years  dating  from  the  Restoration,  the  shipbuilding  in- 
dustrywas  entifelv  lef  L  to  the  Impaial  Goveinilieni;  this~ls^, 
attributable  to  the  fact  that  the  knowledge  of  maritirrie~af- 
fairs  at  that  time  was  very  limited  among  the  people  and  that 
this  kind  of  industry  could  not  sufficiently  arouse  their  interest 


A^ 


1 86  MILITARY  industries:  economic  effects 

a^  it  actually  does  now.     In  about  the  i6th  or  the  17th  year  of 

/Meiji  (1883  or  1884),  with  the  progress  of  marine  transporta- 

/    tion,  the  ships  requiring  repairs  increased  so  greatly  that  many 

/      persons  gradually   decided  to   launch    forth   in   this   under- 

C,,^^^aking.     Thereupon  the  government  saw  no  further  necessity 

of  monopolizing  the  business,  and  with  a  view  to  promoting 

A/  the  shipbuilding  industry  among  the  people,  it  turned  over 
/  the  two  yards  at  Hyogo  (or  Kobe)  and  Nagasaki  to  bidders  in 
}^  b^  \  17  Meiji  (1884),  and  again  the  Department  of  the  Navy  dis- 
,)^  Nposed  of  the  shipbuilding  yards  at  Uraga  and  Ishikawa-Jima 

with  the  same  purpose  in  view.  This  marked  a  new  epoch  in 
shipbuilding  in  this  country,  which  was  no  longer  the  monopoly 
of  the  government.  Yet  shipbuilding  of  these  days  was  only 
in  its  transitional  stage,  and  the  government  had  to  give  un- 
stinted support  to  the  shipbuilders,  and  in  fact  no  efforts  were 
spared  on  the  part  of  the  government  in  enhancing  the  prog- 
ress of  the  new  national  enterprise.  In  this  way  the  people 
were  able  to  build  in  the  20th  year  of  Meiji  (1887)  at  the  Ishi- 
kawa-Jima yard  the  warship  Chokai  with  a  displacement  ton- 
nage of  614.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  construction  of  an 
iron  vessel  by  the  same  company  and  of  building  a  warship  by 
the  people. 

Since  then,  year  after  year,  shipbuilding  companies  and 
ship-repairing  works  have  increased,  and  the  progress  in  the 
shipbuilding  industry  of  the  country  has  become  more  and 
more  apparent.  As  to  the  art  of  ship  construction,  no  re- 
markable strides  were  made  by  private  companies  outside  of 
those  already  mentioned,  except  a  very  few  decidedly  inde- 
pendent of  government  support.  The  majority  of  the  ship 
building  companies  were  able  to  keep  on  their  work  only 
by  the  help  of  the  navy  yards  or  private  first-rate  companies  in 
the  country. 

As  a  result  of  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  which  raised  the 
prestige  of  the  nation,  there  came  a  boom  to  the  shipbuilding 
industry  of  the  country,  and  a  number  of  shipbuilding  and  dock 
companies  sprang  up  simultaneously,  presenting  a  unique 
spectacle  in  the  history  of  Japanese  ship  construction.     This 


EFFECTS   ON   MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRY  1 87 

noteworthy  increase  of  shipbuilding  companies  was  due  in  a 
large  measure  to  promulgation  of  the  Shipbuilding  and  Naviga- 
tion Encouragement  Law,  which  the  government  passed  in 
consideration  of  the  experiences  undergone  in  the  Sino- Japa- 
nese War  and  the  subsequent  economic  development. 

Striking  developments  had  also  been  made  in  the  construc- 
tion of  warships  and  mercantile  vessels  during  and  after  the 
Russo-Japanese  War,  and  the  number  of  dockyards  and  ship- 
repairing  works  in  the  country  reaches  now  over  two  hundred. 
With  exception  of  only  a  few,  these  shipbuilding  companies 
have  not  attained  their  present  prosperity  by  the  direct  in- 
fluence of  military  industry;  yet  this  much  is  certain,  that  the 
shipbuilding  industry  in  general  has  run  on  the  same  course  of 
progress  with  that  of  the  na\-y,  and  that  the  two  recent  wars 
fmig-ht  with  China  and  Rim^ia  have  arrelerated  its  progress. 
The  relation  between  the  general  shipbuilding  industry  am 
the  naval  construction  works  after  these  wars  was  very  close, 
and  it  goes  without  saying  that  the  majority  of  the  shipbuilding 
companies  have  been  indirectly  influenced  by  the  military 
industry.  Space  does  not  permit  an  attempt  at  a  detailed  ac- 
count of  all  the  influences  that  are  directly  related  with  the 
naval  industry,  and  only  a  brief  account  of  some  of  the  striking 
instances  of  the  latest  occurrence  will  be  ventured. 

It  has  been  previously  stated  that  remarkable  progress  was 
attained  by  the  navy  in  the  construction  of  warships,  with  the 
Russo-Japanese  War  marking  a  new  epoch.  But  it  must  be 
also  understood  that  equal  progress  favored  the  national  in- 
dustry of  shipbuilding.  Especially  shipbuilding  companies 
like  Mitsubishi  and  Kawasaki  were  splendidly  equipped  al- 
most to  the  point  of  perfection,  and  even  the  smaller  ones, 
such  as  the  Osaka  Iron  Works  and  the  Uraga  Dock  Company, 
gained  more  or  less  experience  and  have  become  capable  of 
constructing  cruisers  or  torpedo-boat  destroyers  or  ships  of 
similar  importance.  Then  the  Russo-Japanese  War  took  place 
and  made  busier  the  work  of  warship  construction,  and  the 
power  of  the  navy  alone  could  not  meet  all  the  greater  demand. 
The    above-mentioned    four    private    companies   were   then 


188  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

formed  to  assist  the  navy.  They  were  entrusted  with  the  task 
of  building  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  which  numbered  in  all 
fourteen.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  navy  ordering  the 
construction  of  modern  warships  from  private  companies. 

These  warships  were  successfully  completed,  and  then  the 
Kawasaki  Dockyard  accepted  an  order  to  construct  the  dis- 
patch boat  Yodo  and  the  second-class  cruiser  Hirado,  which 
were  launched  in  due  course  of  time.  The  Mitsubishi  then 
built  the  large  torpedo-boat  destroyer  Yamakaze,  the  dispatch 
boat  Mogami,  and  the  second-class  cruiser  Yahagi.  Meantime 
the  Kawasaki  Dockyard  supplied  the  chief  machines  to  be 
fixed  in  the  second-class  cruiser  Chikuma  and  the  battleship 
Kawachi,  which  were  built  at  the  Sasebo  and  the  Yokosuka 
Arsenals,  respectively,  while  the  Mitsubishi  took  up  the  work 
of  providing  the  large  torpedo-boat  destroyer  Umikaze,  built 
at  the  Maizuru  Arsenal,  with  the  chief  machines  to  be  used  in 
its  construction.  In  this  way  the  private  industry  of  construc- 
tive warships  has  made  rapid  development  side  by  side  with 
that  of  constructing  merchantmen. 

The  completion  of  the  productive  facilities  of  the  private 
companies  has  of  late  enabled  the  Mitsubishi  and  the  Kawasaki 
to  each  build  a  battle  cruiser  of  the  type  of  the  Kongo  recently 
built  in  England,  the  launching  of  each  warship  having  taken 
place  toward  the  end  of  3  Taicho  (1914). 

The  experiences  acquired  in  building  such  dreadnoughts  and 
irmored  warships  of  gigantic  size  can  easily  be  applied  to  the 
'construction  of  merchantmen ;  needless  to  say,  the  shipbuilders 
of  this  country  have  in  this  way  utilized  their  experience  ob- 
tained in  one  for  the  perfection  of  the  other  branch  of  the 
shipbuilding  industry. 

Keeping  pace  with  the  progress  of  the  warship-building  in- 
dustry, the  manufacturing  of  various  materials  for  the  use  of 
warship-building  has  made  great  advancement;  the  steel 
plates  which  are  chiefly  required,  steel  pipes,  copper  pipes, 
brass  pipes,  and  all  sorts  of  copper  and  brass  materials  for 
warships  have  come  to  be  largely  supplied  by  domestic  manu- 
facturers. 


EFFECTS   ON   MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRY  1 89 

The  materials  for  the  making  of  the  ship  engines  also  are 
produced  largely  by  the  Japanese  now  that  the  general  private 
industry  of  the  country  has  advanced,  and  only  patented 
articles  and  special  machines  for  the  making  of  engines,  that 
can  not  be  procured  at  home,  have  to  be  imported.  As  to  the 
rest,  all  that  are  employed  in  shipbuilding  are  produced  in 
this  country  as  much  as  possible.  The  following  enumerates 
the  chief  materials,  indicating  their  places  of  production : 

Manufacturers  Materials 

Steel  plates Japanese  Partly  foreign 


Steel  pipes . 
Copper  plates.  . 
Copper  pipes .  .  . 
Condenser  pipes . 

Castings 

Forged  metals.  . 


Foreign 
Japanese 

Partly  foreign 


The  articles  listed  above  were  formerly  all  imported,  but  the 
recent  development  of  the  domestic  industry  has  greatly 
diminished  their  importation,  with  the  consequence  that 
Japan  has  saved  an  enormous  amount  of  outflowing  expendi- 
tures. These  instances  show  conclusively  how  great  the  in- 
fluence of  military  industry  has  been  upon  general  industry. 

Iron  Manufacture. — Iron  has  been  produced  in  Japan  from 
olden  times,  and  the  producing  area  extends  over  one-third 
of  the  entire  area  of  the  Empire.  The  iron  ores  produced 
include  magnetite,  hematite,  limonite,  xanthosiderite  and 
magnetic  sand,  but  only  the  last  named  has  been  chiefly  used 
from  early  days,  and  from  it  they  made  swords  and  iron  wares. 
After  the  Meiji  Restoration  mechanical  engineering  made 
steady  progress,  and  iron  has  come  to  be  in  great  demand. 
But  the  mining  industry  and  iron  manufacturing  and  refining 
work  were  yet  very  inactive,  and  only  at  the  Kamaishi  mine 
and  the  Sennin  mine  of  Iwate  Prefecture  a  limited  amount  of 
iron  ores  were  dug  out  and  refined  about  the  time  of  the  Resto- 
ration. But  the  lack  of  skill  in  the  work,  together  with  the 
small  demand  for  iron  at  that  time,  forced  the  immediate  clos- 
ing of  operations,  the  one  at  Kamaishi  having  been  closed  in 
the  1 6th  year  of  Meiji  (1883)  and  the  other  at  Sennin  not  long 


1 90  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

after  Its  inauguration.  The  old  mode  of  iron  manufacturing 
was  no  more  than  the  refining  of  magnetic  sand  by  the  use  of 
charcoal.  In  about  the  20th  year  of  Meiji  (1887),  however, 
with  the  gradual  progress  of  military  and  naval  industry, 
Japan  had  to  import  various  kinds  of  iron  and  steel  materials 
to  meet  the  increasing  demand.  The  government,  consider- 
ing, on  the  other  hand,  the  military  importance  as  well  as  the 
importance  of  preventing  foreign  imports,  reopened  the  iron 
manufacturing  work  at  the  Kamaishi  mine  sometime  about  30 
Meiji  (1887)  by  leasing  the  property  to  private  enterprise. 

Upon  the  close  of  the  Sino-Japanese  War  the  government 
felt  the  importance  of  iron  manufacturing  even  more  keenly, 
and  in  the  28th  year  of  Meiji  (1895)  it  prompted  some  capital- 
ists among  the  people  to  reopen  the  old  works  at  Sennin,  and  in 
>the  34th  year  of  Meiji  (1901)  iron  refining  was  started  at  this 
/  place.     Almost  at  the  same  time  a  pig-iron  refinery  was  built 
/    at  Kuriki,  Iwate  Prefecture,  and  from  these  sources  the  govern- 
(       ment  was  able  to  obtain  some  amount  of  iron  for  the  military 
X^and  naval  factories. 

Before  this  time,  as  a  result  of  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  the 
government  was  awakened  to  the  necessity  of  independence 
in  arms,  and,  together  with  the  object  of  consolidating  the 
foundation  of  the  general  manufacturing  industry,  it  was  in- 
duced to  establish  a  model  factory  for  iron  manufacturing  at 
v/its  own  expense.     In  March,  29  Meiji  (1896),  the  government 
/    promulgated  a  law  pertaining  to  the  iron  foundry,  which  it 
/        declared  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
^' — .     culture  and  Commerce;  and  in  February  of  the  next  year  it 
was  notified  that  an  iron  foundry  would  be  built  at  Hachiman- 
mure,  Fukuoka  Prefecture,  where,  upon  its  nearing  comple- 
tion, it  began  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  in  February,  34 
Meiji  (1901).     As  the  work  of  construction  further  advanced, 
other  works  in  iron  manufacturing  were  put  into  operation; 
then  the  outbreak  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  prompted  sev- 
eral more  new  undertakings  to  be  added.     But  with  all  the 
accommodations  introduced,  the  amount  of  steel  produced  at 
the  foundry  was  not  more  thai^90,ooo  tons  a  year.     Compar- 


EFFECTS    ON   MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRY  IQI 

ing  this  with  the  average  amount  of  steel  imported  yearly  dur- 
ing the  thre^  years  preceding  the  late  war  (some  230,000  tons, 
vah]ed  at  over  20,000,000  yen),  Japan  could  never  be  satisfied 
with  the  result — the  production  falling  far  short  of  the  demand 
of  the  country.  Moreover,  the  demand  for  iron  after  the  late 
war  tended  to  increase  with  the  development  of  the  industry, 
and  it  now  became  necessary  that  the  foundry  be  enlarged  to 
meet  this  demand,  so  that  a  new  plan  was  devised  to  bring  out 
annually  180,000  tons  of  steel,  or  twice  the  original  amount. 
This  plan  was  put  into  execution  in  the  39th  year  of  Meiji 
(1906)  and  was  completed  in  the  42d  year  of  Meiji  (1909). 
But  when  this  extension  was  completed,  it  was  found  that  the 
public  demand  for  iron  had  increased  considerably,  and  that 
without  another  expansion  it  would  become  totally  impossible 
to  meet  the  general  requirements.  Consequently  in  the  44th 
year  of  Meiji  (191 1)  the  government  set  about  to  further  en- 
large iron  manufacturing  on  a  scheme  of  six  years'  standing, 
by  which  Japan  can  obtain  fully  300,000  tons  of  steel  a  year.   ^ 

As  seen  by  the  facts  mentioned  above,  the  estatrttshment  of 
the  iron  foundry  at  Hachiman  was  in  the  main  necessitated  by 
war  preparations.  Not  long  after  the  opening  of  the  foundry, 
the  Russo-Japanese  War  broke  out,  and  with  the  increased 
manufacture  of  arms  it  was  necessary  to  enlarge  the  foundry  to 
meet  the  demand  for  iron,  which  as  a  matter  of  course  in- 
creased greatly.  Then  came  a  third  expansion.  It  had  to  be 
effected  in  order  to  make  up  the  loss  of  arms  by  the  war  and  to 

meet  the  greater  requirement  for  munitions  consequent  upon 

the  military  expansion.     Such  being  the  case,  it  will  be  easily       j 
understood  that  the  iron   foundry  at   Hachiman  has    been      J 
closely  related  to  the  manufacturing  of  arms  from  its  very 
beginning. 

Again,  no  one  can  doubt  that  military  industry  has  been  in- 
strumental in  the  promotion  of  the  technical  ability  of  the 
foundry.  It  affords  the  foundry  opportunities  to  add  to  its 
skill  in  producing  special  steel  by  taking  orders  from  the  army 
to  manufacture  barrels  of  small  arms  and  steel  projectiles.  In 
like  manner  the  demand  for  thick  steel  plates  by  the  navy 


192  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC   EFFECTS      '' 

has  prompted  the  acquisition  by  the  foundry  engineers  and 
workmen  of  greater  efficiency  in  turning  them  out. 

The  iron  foundry  at  Hachiman  has  now  the  following  ac- 
commodations: 

Two  coal  washing  shops,  150  solvay  coke  ovens,  120  copper 
coke  ovens,  i  sulphuric  acid  factory,  i  ammonium  sulphate 
factory,  i  pitch  factory,  i  fire  brick  factory,  i  lime  factory, 
I  slag  brick  factory,  4  cupolas,  i  blower  building,  i  pig-iron 
mixing  oven,  12  Siemens  Martin  converters,  2  Bessemer  con- 
verters, I  crucible  steel  factory,  i  copper  refining  factory,  2 
roller  mills  (for  billet  of  broom),  i  rail  factory,  i  large  size 
roller  mill  (for  various  sections  of  bar) ,  i  iron  refining  factory, 
I  medium  size  roller  mill  (for  various  sections  of  bar),  2 
small  size  roller  mills,  i  wire  manufacturing  factory,  i  thick 
plate  factory,  i  thin  plate  factory,  i  open  hearth  steel  factory, 
I  corrugated  sheet  iron  factory,  i  tire  rolling  factory,  i  factory 
for  manufacturing  steel  projectiles,  i  bolt  factory,  i  lathing 
shop,  I  factory  for  repairing  electric  work,  i  workshop  for 
repairs,  i  boiler  making  factory,  i  smithy,  i  casting  mill,  i 
laboratory,  i  house  for  the  examination  of  manufactures. 
The  motive  power  by  which  the  above  factories  and  appa- 
ratus are  put  into  operation  is  generated  by  steam,  electric- 
ity, or  hydraulic  pressure.  The  steam  boilers  in  the  premises 
number  207,  and  the  engines  and  motors  number  122,  the 
entire  motive  power  produced  by  these  means  amounting  to 
48,900  horse  power.  Of  the  entire  motive  power  some  4,700 
horse  power  is  produced  by  hydraulic  pressure  and  about 
3,015  by  electricity.  Lastly,  the  workmen  engaged  number 
nearly  9,000  in  all. 

The  chief  manufactures  are  materials  or  half-made  articles 
for  military  and  naval  industry,  some  being  disposed  of  for  the 
benefit  of  the  people.  Formerly  the  foundry  accepted  orders 
from  foreign  countries  to  make  military  weapons,  but  now  the 
demand  for  iron  at  home  exceeding  by  far  the  whole  amount 
produced  has  become  too  great  to  accept  foreign  orders. 

In  short,  the  military  industry  has  been  instrumental  in  the 
establishment  of  the  iron  foundry  and  in  the  birth  of  new  min- 


EFFECTS   ON   MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRY  1 93 

ing  and  refining  works  in  this  country,  thus  initiating  effprtive 
methods  for  utilizing  national  wealth  to  the  best  advarv^ag^^ 
and  promoting  the  interests  of  those  undertakings. 

Clothing  and  Provision  Industry. — The  work  of  the  Senju 
Woolen  Cloth  Factory  is  comparatively  the  oldest  in  its  origin 
of  the  industrial  factory  in  Japan.  The  factory  was  established 
when  the  country  was  yet  in  its  infantile  stage  as  regards 
national  industry.  It  early  installed  motors,  spinning  ma- 
chines and  weaving  machines,  and  acted  as  a  pioneer  in  the 
mechanical  industry  of  the  country.  Besides,  as  it  had  no 
need  of  secrecy  like  an  arms  manufactory,  it  was  open  to  public 
inspection ;  the  factories  for  manufacturing  woolen  cloths,  for 
cotton  spinning  and  manufacturing,  and  for  general  weaving 
industry,  as  well  as  any  other  factories  run  by  power  generating 
machines,  sought  for  hints  and  suggestions  in  this  factory 
as  to  technical  points,  the  purchase  of  goods,  the  employment 
of  artisans,  the  keeping  of  orders  in  a  factory,  the  storage 
of  goods,  the  packing  and  spinning  of  these  manufactured 
articles,  etc.  The  woolen  cloth  factory  was  itself  confident 
of  its  model  organization  and  willingly  offered  various  facili- 
ties to  private  companies,  trying  assiduously  to  diffuse  the 
knowledge  of  factory  industry  among  the  people.  The  com- 
panies built  in  Tokyo  and  the  neighborhood  some  years  later 
for  the  manufacture  of  woolen  or  cotton  cloth  largely  followed 
the  system  of  the  Senju  factory.  This  is  especially  true  of 
the  woolen  manufacturing  companies,  which,  including  even 
those  of  the  latest  establishment,  have  chiefly  adopted  its 
managerial  and  technical  methods.  Among  such  companies 
are  the  Tokyo  Woolen  Cloth  Manufacturing  Company,  the 
Tokyo  Woolen  Textile  Company,  the  Kakogawa  Japan 
Woolen  Textile  Company,  and  the  Goto  Woolen  Textile  Com- 
pany. Moreover,  the  Senju  factory  has  contributed  a  great 
deal  toward  the  advancement  of  the  manufacturing  industry 
of  those  materials  that  are  used  at  the  factory.  Palm  oil, 
camphor  oil  and  machine  oil  (gasoline,  valve  oil  and  engine 
oil,  inclusive)  which  are  used  in  large  quantities  at  the  factory, 
are  among  those  things  the  production  of  which  has  been  im- 


194  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

mensely  influenced  by  the  existence  of  the  factory.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  factory  has  equally  influenced  the  industry  of 
bringing  forth  worked  wool,  artificial  wool  and  dyestuffs. 

The  clothing  industry  under  the  supervision  of  the  Clothing 
Department  and  its  branches  (governmental),  however,  has 
produced  little  effect  upon  the  same  line  of  industry  pursued  in 
factories  carried  on  by  the  people ;,  the  reason  is  that  the  work 
of  clothes  and  shoe  making  has  been  mostly  conducted  at  home 
and  not  at  factories.  Only  the  work  of  such  companies  as 
essentially  aim  at  the  making  of  military  clothing,  including 
the  clothing  factory  of  the  Okura-gumi  and  its  shoe  depart- 
ment, the  Sakura-gumi  Shoe  Manufactory,  and  the  Tokyo 
Shoe  Manufacturing  Company,  has  been  affected  since  the 
establishment  of  factories  by  the  government,  which  have 
come  to  manufacture  the  bulk  of  similar  articles.  As  regards 
the  materials  of  the  clothing  manufacturing  industry,  the  in- 
fluence of  the  governmental  works  has  been  manifest ;  besides 
being  supplied  by  the  Senju  Woolen  Cloth  Factory  (govern- 
mental) ,  the  government  has  had  to  purchase  the  most  impor- 
tant woolen  materials  largely  from  private  companies.  Hemp 
cloths  have  been  purchased  from  private  hemp  manufacturing 
companies,  and  cotton  cloths  from  cotton  textile  companies. 
Leather  used  for  shoe  manufacturing  and  other  purposes  was 
formerly  imported  from  abroad,  but  in  recent  years  the  bulk 
has  been  provided  by  domestic  manufacturers.  And  the 
dyeing  of  cotton  and  hemp  cloths  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
private  factories.  Altogether,  the  greatness  of  demand  and 
the  skill  of  work  required  in  these  materials  have  made  this 
line  of  factory  industry  develop  considerably. 
/^  Speaking  of  the  provision  industry,  we  must  add  that  its 
/  materials  are  more  largely  obtained  from  agricultural  or  stock- 
CT  farming  sources  than  supplied  by  industrial  companies ;  conse- 
^v  quently  this  line  of  government  industry  would  have  but 
slight  effect  upon  factory  undertakings.  Only  the  govern- 
ment's canning  factory,  the  equipment  of  which  is  well-nigh 
perfect  and  which  is  looked  upon  as  the  model  factory  of  the 
kind  in  Japan,  is  frequented  by  manufacturers  in  the  same 


EFFECTS   ON   MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRY  1 95 

line,  who  are  greatly  benefited  by  their  examination  of  the  man- 
ufacture. The  manufacture  of  bread  is  largely  carried  on  by 
both  the  army  and  the  navy,  but  the  specialty  of  their  products 
is  not  conforming  to  the  general  taste,  so  that  their  bakery 
work  produces  little  or  no  effect  upon  the  national  industry  of 
bread  making.  The  production  of  wheat  flour,  which  forms 
the  chief  material  in  bread  making,  produces  more  or  less 
effect  upon  the  flour  industry  among  the  people.  Rice  milling, 
which  is  conducted  on  a  large  scale  by  the  government,  sets  a 
good  example  to  the  people,  who  are  introducing  many  innova- 
tions in  their  methods  of -cleaning  rice. 

Loss  Suffered  by  General  Factory  Industry 

In  the  preceding  pages  a  general  statement  has  been  made 
as  to  the  influences  caused  by  military  industry  upon  factory 
undertakings.  But  the  influences  referred  to  were  of  such  a 
nature  that  their  presence  and  power  are  constantly  desirable, 
and  what  unfavorable  effects  military  industry  has  given  to 
factory  industry  in  general  remains  to  be  explained.  The  use 
and  users  of  military  manufactures  differ  from  those  of  gen- 
eral industrial  products/ and  very  seldom,  if  ever,  do  the  mili- 
tary manufactures  appear  in  the  market;  consequentlv  these 
manufactures  would  not  compete  with  other  market"  goods^ 
or  impair  or  destroy  the  undertakings  of  the  people.  The 
trouble  is  that,  inasmuch  as  the  amount  of  materials  used  and 
the  number  of  workmen  engaged  in  military  industry  are 
enormous,  possibly  some  materials  which  are  also  used  in  gen- 
eral industry  will  rise  in  their  market  prices  and  the  wages  of 
the  workmen  will  be  raised  at  the  same  time.  These  will, 
it  is  feared,  culminate  in  the  depression  of  general  industrial 
undertakings.  But  those  industrial  companies  which  aim  at 
the  production  of  articles  used  in  military  industry  suffer  very 
little  from  the  rise  of  market  prices  and  of  the  wages  of  work- 
men, because  their  manufactures  will  be  readily  purchased 
by  the  government  and  the  loss  to  be  otherwise  incurred  will 
be  fully  compensated.  On  the  contrary,  the  industrial  com- 
panies which  are  in  no  way  connected  with  military  industry 


r 


196  MILITARY   industries:    ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

must  take  the  natural  consequences  resultant  from  the  above 
circumstances.  Especially,  the  extent  of  damages  suffered  by 
such  companies  at  the  places  where  there  are  large  military 
factories  is  amazingly  great,  though  exception  is  made  in 
those  in  large  cities  like  Tokyo  and  Osaka.  The  fact  is  best 
illustrated  by  like  companies  built  near  the  naval  ports. 

There  are,  of  course,  some  articles  and  materials  which  were 
or  are  manufactured  for  military  purposes  and  which  have 
been  also  disposed  of  for  the  benefit  of  the  people.  For  conven- 
ience, the  manufacture  of  such  articles  has  been  undertaken  by 
the  government  as  a  by-work;  the  articles  thus  manufactured 
have  been  distributed  to  government  departments  and  public 
bodies,  or  widely  among  the  people.  Those  that  come  under 
the  former  category  are  bronze  statues,  iron  water  pipes,  parts 
for  heavy  machines,  horseshoes,  etc.,  and  among  the  latter  are 
included  short  guns,  gunpowder  for  shooting,  mining  explosives, 
dynamite,  sodas,  weak  acids,  artificial  wool,  felt,  etc.  These 
articles  mainly  include  those  that  are  not  manufactured  by  the 
people,  owing  to  the  lack  of  necessary  accommodations,  those 
which  as  explosives  are  prohibited  from  manufacture  by  the 
people  by  the  national  law,  and  by-products  of  military  in- 
dustry. Of  these  things  which  are  used  by  the  people,  the  de- 
mand for  explosives  is  exceedingly  great,  and  not  a  small 
amount  is  annually  imported.  And  there  is  every  prospect  of 
development  in  this  line  of  industry,  if  it  is  only  transferred  to 
the  hands  of  the  people.  To  monopolize  this  kind  of  industry 
on  the  mere  ground  of  preserving  public  peace  is  indisputably 
disadvantageous  to  the  progress  of  national  industry  and  to 
the  economic  policy  of  a  nation. 

At  the  time  of  initiation  the  manufacture  of  woolen  cloth 
was  taken  up  by  the  army,  in  consideration  of  its  military  im- 
portance and  the  limited  extent  of  progress  made  by  national 
industry.  The  services  of  the  woolen  cloth  factory  (Senju) 
rendered  to  our  industrial  world  ever  since  must  not  be  ignored ; 
yet  it  remains  a  question  deserving  careful  study  whether  such 
an  industry  should  ever  be  conducted  under  government  man- 


EFFECTS   ON   MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRY  1 97 

agement,  especially  when  industrial  conditions  at  large  have 
so  much  improved  as  today.  In  fact  we  can  not  say  today 
that  the  existence  of  the  factory  may  not  become  an  impedi- 
ment to  the  progress  of  the  national  industry  of  manufacturing 
woolen  cloth. 

Since  the  industry  of  manufacturing  clothing  and  provisions 
was  assumed  by  the  army,  a  loss  has  been  suffered  by  the  cloth- 
ing factories,  canning  factories,  and  bread-making  establish- 
ments, which  had  hitherto  aimed  at  the  production  of  such 
things,  some  of  the  factories  having  been  compelled  to  close 
their  business.  This  can  be  regarded  as  one  phase  of  the  bane- 
ful influences  exercised  over  the  national  enterprises  by  the ( 

domination  of  military  industry. 

Domestic  Industry 

In  order  that  military  industry  may  have  its  influence  upon 
domestic  industry,  it  is  essential  that  its  work  be  suitable  to 
the  latter.  The  making  of  arms,  ammunition,  mechanical 
implements  and  war  vessels  can  never  adapt  itself  to  domes- 
tic industry,  and  naturally  it  will  produce  little  eff^ect  upon  the 
work  at  home.  On  the  contrary,  the  clothing  industry  has 
close  relations  with  domestic  industry.  From  ancient  times 
the  clothing  industry  in  Japan  has  mainly  relied  upon  handi- 
craft and  domestic  labor.  After  the  Meiji  Restoration,  when 
the  army  and  the  navy  adopted  the  European  system  of  or- 
ganization, a  change  took  place  in  the  clothing  of  soldiers  and 
sailors,  who  have  come  to  wear  European  uniforms  and  mili- 
tary shoes.  Hence,  these  uniforms  and  shoes  were  made  by 
the  army  and  the  navy,  each  of  which,  among  its  divisions, 
had  a  certain  number  of  foremen  and  artisans  for  the  purpose. 
But  the  uniforms  and  shoes  thus  made  were  very  small  in  num- 
ber, and  the  bulk  of  the  supply  was  prepared  by  professional 
tailors,  shoemakers,  and  leather  dealers  among  the  people. 
And  this  work  was  done  at  home.  At  various  places  where 
garrisons  and  naval  stations  were  located,  many  clothing 
makers  lived  here  and  there  and  carried  on  their  work.  Conse- 
quently, in  the  early  years  of  Meiji,  when  few  people  wore 


198  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

European  clothes  and  shoes,  the  number  of  tailors  and  shoe- 
makers for  the  army  and  the  navy  was  far  greater  than  that  of 
ordinary  tailors  and  shoemakers.  Upon  the  expansion  of  the 
army  and  navy  later  on,  soldiers  and  sailors  greatly  increased 
numerically  and  military  tailors  and  shoemakers  as  well. 
By  that  time  some  of  the  uniforms  and  shoes  for  military 
purposes  were  made  at  the  factories  of  private  companies,  but 
they  were  not  many.  The  greater  part  was  still  made  at 
home ;  and  for  these  reasons  domestic  industry  exerted  a  great 
influence  over  the  localities  where  military  or  naval  stations 
were  situated.  As  a  result  of  the  Sino- Japanese  and  the 
Russo-Japanese  Wars,  especially,  the  number  of  tailors  and 
shoemakers  increased  wonderfully,  adding  more  to  the  pros- 
perity of  this  kind  of  domestic  industry  and  causing  it  to  take 
an  important  position  in  the  economy  of  the  country.  But 
in  the  35th  year  of  Meiji  (1902)  a  factory  for  manufacturing 
shoes  was  built  in  Tokyo,  and  here  military  shoes  were  manu- 
factured. Shortly  afterward  the  cutting  of  cloth  for  military 
uniforms  was  started  by  the  government  and  contracts  were 
given  for  making  up  the  cut  cloths  to  tailors  among  the  people. 
Again  in  the  37th  year  of  Meiji  (1904)  the  government  initi- 
ated the  sewing  of  the  important  parts  of  military  clothing, 
and  this  government  work  threatened  to  deal  a  serious  blow 
to  tailors  and  shoemakers  among  the  people,  when  about  this 
time  the  Russo-Japanese  War  broke  out  and  these  traders  re- 
ceived large  orders  from  the  government  to  make  military 
clothing,  so  that  they  could  continue  their  work,  though  with 
much  difficulty.  The  war  end(;^d,  the  work  of  the  Clothing 
Department  (governmental)  was  enlarged,  and  the  making  of^ 
clothing  has  come  to  be  conducted  on  a  greater  scale.  This 
brought  about  a  decline  in  the  domestic  industry,  which  hac 
been  most  successful  in  making  clothes  and  shoes.  Many 
tailors  and  shoemakers  closed  their  business  for  other  profita- 
ble callings  and  some  became  workmen  of  the  Clothing  De- 
partment. In  this  way  the  progress  of  the  clothing  industry 
carried  on  by  the  army  has  exercised  a  deadly  influence  over 
domestic  industry.    But  even  today  the  less  important  articles 


EFFECTS   ON   MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRY 


199 


of  military  clothing,  as  shown  in  the  following  table  of  classifi- 
cation, are  made  by  the  people,  from  their  own  materials  or 
from  materials  furnished  by  the  government.  The  articles  of 
clothing  for  the  use  of  the  navy  are  numerically  far  inferior  to 
those  of  the  army,  but  the  manufacture  is  altogether  in  the 
hands  of  the  people,  and  not  a  few  are  engaged  in  this  line  of 
work  as  their  principal  occupation  or  a  subsidiary  one. 

The  provision  industry  of  the  government  has  had  little 
to  do  with  domestic  industry.  It  only  gives  some  assistance 
to  the  domestic  industry  in  such  kinds  of  products  as  paper 
bags,  wrappers  and  packing  materials  used  for  manufactured 
goods,  as  the  making  of  these  things  are  entrusted  to  the 
people.  The  manufacture  of  military  clothing  and  that  of  pro- 
visions was  formerly  conducted  by  people  at  various  places 
throughout  the  country  where  garrisons  are  located.  But  since 
the  transference  of  these  industries  to  the  army,  the  works  have 
been  concentrated  in  Tokyo,  Osaka  and  Hiroshima,  under  the 
factory  system,  and  as  the  result  of  their  absorption  of  a  large 
working  population,  damage  has  been  done  to  some  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  domestic  industry  carried  on  in  these  localities. 


Table  Showing  Military  Clothing  as  Supplied  by  Government  or 

People 


Supplied  by  the 

Supplied  by  the 

Supplied  by  the 

Supplied  by  the 

Government 

People 

Government 

People 

Caps  (a  greater 

Caps  (part) 

Summer  under- 

part) 

shirts  and 
drawers 

Winter  uniforms 

Lace  boots  (part) 

Summer  uniforms 

Lace  boots  (a 
greater  part) 

Overcoats 

Rain  coats 

Puttees 

Leather  gaiters 

Shoulder  straps 

Shoulder  straps  (a 

Socks 

(part) 

greater  part) 

Collar  patches 

Collar  patches  (a 

Spurs 

(part) 

greater  part) 

Rain  coats 

Gloves 

Winter  working 

Chest  protectors 

suits 

Working  caps 

Aprons 

Working  suits 

Leather  aprons 

Winter  undershirts 

Pantaloons 

and  drawers 

200 


MILITARY   industries:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 


Table  Showing  Military  Clothing  as  Supplied  by  Government  or 
People — Continued 


Supplied  by  the 

Supplied  by  the 

Supplied  by  the 

Supplied  by  the 

Government 

People 

Government 

People 

Gymnastic  caps 

Sets  for  caring  for 
clothes: 
Cloth  brushes 

Gymnastic  jackets 

Shoe  brushes 

Gymnastic  trousers 

Washing  brushes 

Gymnastic  waist- 

Oil pots 

bands 

Fencing  jackets 

Scissors 

Fencing  trousers 

Spools 

Fencing  waistbands 

Knives;  sacks 

Pocket  ledgers 

Hempen  bags 

Officers'  knapsacks 

Knapsacks 

Lunch  boxes 

Bags 

Canteens 

Haversacks 

Wrapping  cloth 

Leather  haver- 

Quilts and  mat- 

sacks 

tresses 

Quilts  and  mat- 

Slippers 

tresses,  large 

Bed  sheets 

Special  badges 

Pillows  and  pil- 

Distinguishing 

low  slips 

badges 

Pillows  and  their 

Portable  tents 

covers,  large 

Mosquito  nets 

Puggarees 

Mosquito  nets, 

Flannel  under- 

large 

wear 

Unlined  garments 

Flannel  belly 

for  patients 

bands 

Lined  garments 

Woolen  knit  un- 

for patients 

derwear 

Wadded  garments 

•    .... 

Woolen  knit 

for  patients 

drawers 

Shirts 

Woolen  knit 

. 

gloves 

Belts 

Fur  undergar- 
ments 

Garments  for  luna- 

Collars 

tic  patients 

Caps  for  patients 

Woolen  socks 

Mufflers 

Wadded  gloves 

Woolen  shoes 

Wadded  drawers 

Wadded  livery 

Japanese  socks 

coats 

Wadded  caps 

Besides  the  above,  there  are  about  23,000  extra  haver- 
sacks made  annually  by  outside  tailors  to  whom  an  order 
may  be  given  together  with  the  necessary  cloth. 


effects  on  manufacturing  industry  201 

Manual  Industry 

The  influence  exerted  upon  hard  work  by  miUtary  industry 
is  also  not  small.  In  the  army  and  the  navy  factories,  work- 
men for  each  particular  branch  of  work  are  taken  as  far  as  cir- 
cumstances permit  from  among  the  people  in  the  same  or 
similar  trades.  And  as  these  men  with  special  experience  are, 
of  course,  paid  better  rates  of  wages  than  plain  workers,  hosts 
of  artisans  come  from  all  parts  of  the  country,  to  serve  in  the 
army  and  the  navy.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  naval 
factories;  in  all  the  navy  yards  and  arsenals  the  majority  of 
men  are  possessed  of  more  or  less  manual  skill.  In  both  the 
factories  of  the  army  and  the  navy%  those  manual  workers  are 
generally  fitted  into  different  works  according  to  their  special 
attainments,  in  order  to  enable  them  to  work  to  the  best  of 
their  capacity;  for  instance,  carpenters,  sawyers,  coopers, 
joiners,  etc.,  are  made  to  work  in  the  woodwork  shop;  black- 
smiths, goldsmiths,  etc.,  in  the  forge;  casters  in  the  foundry; 
lacquerers  and  painters  in  the  lacquerering  shop;  plasterers, 
stone  masons,  roofers  and  bricklayers,  etc.,  in  the  building  de- 
partment; tailors,  shoemakers,  etc.,  in  the  clothing  factory; 
saddlers  or  harness  makers  in  the  harness  factory;  wheel- 
wrights in  the  wagon  factory ;  weavers  in  the  woolen  cloth  fac- 
tory; ship  carpenters  in  the  shipbuilding  yard.  This  system 
is  practiced  with  great  advantage  to  the  factories  as  well  as  to 
the  workmen.  It  is  therefore  to  the  interest  of  all  military 
factories  to  receive  artisans  in  a  respectful  manner.  These 
men  have  to  observe  some  disciplinary  rules  in  the  factories, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  can  get  security  of  position,  with 
an  income  of  more  than  what  they  would  be  able  to  realize  in 
private  work;  besides,  they  are  entitled  to  an  allowance  in  case 
they  are  injured  or  sick,  and  to  other  relief,  and  moreover  to 
pensions  after  a  term  of  service.  In  the  face  of  these  possibilf^A 
ties,  men  who  are  endowed  with  manual  skill  suitable  for  mili-  ] 
tary  industry,  and  are  free  from  family  obligations,  and  within 
the  prescribed  limit  of  age,  are  naturally  induced  to  go  into  the 
service  of  military  factories.  They  are  thus  taken  away  in 
large  numbers  every  year  from  general  industry,  and  cause  the 


202  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

/     wages  of  artisans  to  rise.     The  phenomenon  is  most  noticeable 

I        in  the  factories  of  naval  stations,  where  artisans  of  certain 

\        kinds  readily  find  work  among  the  people  and  get  a  compara- 

\       tively  nice  living. 

^^^  As  regards  the  technical  progress  of  the  artisans  employed 

/  in  military  factories,  we  find  that  its  influence  is  inconsider- 

(      able.     Most  of  the  work  in  the  factories  is  done  by  the  division 

^^u)f  labor,  so  that  a  workman  gets  only  partial  skill  in  the  process 

of  manufacture;  moreover,  many  of  the  manufactures  are 

articles  peculiar  to  the  army  and  the  navy,  and  mainly  products 

of  mechanical  work.     For  these  reasons  the  manual  arts  of  the 

people  in  general  are  affected  but  little  by  the  work  in  military 

industries.     Only  the  workmen  who  make  small  but  complete 

articles  in  the  iron  or  the  woodwork  line,  or  those  employed  in 

the  clothing  or  the  leather  industry,  find  in  their  work  great 

opportunities  to  develop  their  abilities. 

The  artisans  residing  in  a  place  where  military  factories  are 
located  are  benefited  by  the  ample  work  and  good  pay  caused 
by  the  scarcity  of  manual  labor  in  that  locality.  But  that  is 
not  all.  They  continually  find  work  in  the  making  of  those 
innumerable  small  hand-made  articles  which  are  used  in  the 
factories  but  are  purchased  from  the  people  instead  of  being 
made  there,  or  in  the  making  of  that  class  of  articles  used  every 
day  in  the  homes  of  the  officials  and  workmen  of  the  factories. 
The  work  is  so  plentiful  that  many  of  them  find  their  whole 
employment  in  the  making  of  those  articles  for  the  factories 
alone.  In  this  case  it  is  not  only  the  artisans  in  the  same  line 
of  work  as  those  employed  in  the  factories  who  get  the  benefit, 
but  also  those  in  other  lines  of  manual  work,  such  as  those 
who  produce  the  miscellaneous  articles  which  are  wanted  in 
the  factories  not  only  for  the  industry  but  for  other  uses  and 
are  used  every  day  in  the  homes  of  the  officials  and  workmen 
of  the  factories,  are  equally  the  recipients  of  the  advantage. 
Excepting  only  clothing,  leather  articles  and  small  miscel- 
laneous articles  of  iron  or  wood,  the  manufactures  of  military 
industry  are  made  very  little  by  manual  work,  so  that  there  is 
almost  no  instance  to  speak  of  in  which  the  former  industry 
has  proved  a  pressure  or  impediment  to  the  latter. 


^ 


CHAPTER  IV 
EFFECTS  ON  PRIMITIVE  INDUSTRY 

The  influence  of  military  industry  upon  primitive  industry 
is  also  evident  in  Japan,  although  it  is  not  so  large  as  that  upon 
manufactures  or  commerce,  and  in  some  instances  it  obstructed 
the  progress  of  the  industrv  rather  than  aided  it.  Japan  was 
called  an  agricultural  country  from  antiquity,  and  even  now 
agricultural  products  are  its  staple.  Manufacturing  industry 
made  very  slow  progress,  so  that  the  influence  it  had  upon 
agriculture  was  not  remarkable  until  very  recently.  The  in- 
dustry of  the  army  and  the  navy  has  made  comparatively 
rapid  development,  but  the  great  majority  of  its  manufactures 
take  but  a  little  of  its  materials  from  the  agricultural  king- 
dom, and  in  this  respect  it  can  not  be  said  to  exert  influence 
upon  agriculture.  The  rise  of  the  price  of  commodities  and 
wages  in  general,  consequent  upon  its  absorption  of  raw  mate- 
rials and  workmen,  must  have  had  comparatively  serious  ef- 
fects upon  the  interests  of  agriculture.  However,  such  an  in- 
direct influence  is  out  of  the  reach  of  statistics  and  can  not  be 
made  out  with  preciseness.  In  the  following  section,  therefore, 
full  space  will  be  given  to  the  statement  of  the  direct  advan- 
tages derived  from  military  industry,  with  but  a  rough  refer- 
ence made  to  the  indirect  influences. 

Besides  agriculture,  we  are  to  write  about  the  influences 
upon  forestry  and  mining;  but  while  there  is  not  so  much 
to  be  said  of  mining,  forestry  has  received  only  slight  influ- 
ences, of  which  very  few  are  worth  mentioning. 

Although  the  influence  of  military  industry  is  noticeable  on 
the  different  primitive  industries  other  than  these  three,  the 
comparison  is  too  insignificant  to  be  described  and  it  will  there- 
fore be  omitted. 

203 


204  military  industries:  economic  effects 

Agriculture 

Among  agricultural  products,  the  principal  materials  used 
in  the  army  and  the  navy  industries  are,  for  provision  manu- 
facture, rice,  barley,  wheat  flour,  rice  flour,  sugar,  sesame, 
potatoes,  greens,  pickles,  hops,  straw  ropes,  straw  bags,  etc. ; 
for  clothing  manufacture,  hemp,  hemp  threads,  hemp  cloth, 
cotton  threads,  cotton  cloth,  paper,vegetable  oils,  thistle  seed, 
vegetable  dyestuffs,  etc. ;  and,  for  the  manufacture  of  arms  and 
ammunition  and  shipbuilding,  hemp,  hemp  cloth,  cotton,  cot- 
ton cloth,  vegetable  oils,  paper,  lacquer,  starch,  etc.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  materials  from  stock  farms,  which  are,  beef 
for  the  provision  industry ;  wool,  hides  and  leather,  animal  oils, 
etc.,  for  the  clothing  industry;  hides  and  leather,  animal  oils, 
etc.,  for  the  other  industries.  With  the  exception  of  hops,  all 
the  above  materials  are  produced  by  domestic  farmers.  Ma- 
terials partly  manufactured,  as  rice  flour,  wheat  flour,  sugar, 
hemp  thread,  hemp  cloth,  cotton  thread,  cotton  cloth,  paper, 
lacquer,  dyestuffs,  hides  and  leather,  fat  and  oil,  etc.,  are  made 
by  farmers,  but,  being  by-work,  it  is  carried  on  in  onlya  limited 
degree,  and  such  of  these  materials  as  are  required  by  the 
army  and  the  navy  in  large  quantities  are  generally  made  by 
private  factories,  so  that  the  farmers  would  only  have  to  supply 
these  factories  with  their  raw  products  and  have  no  large  and 
direct  advantage  in  respect  of  these  materials.  Soy  used  in 
provision  factories  and  alcohol  used  extensively  in  various 
factories  have  some  influence  upon  agriculture,  as  their  raw 
materials  are  taken  from  farms.  Common  salt  used  in  the 
factories  is  not  without  some  interest  to  farmers,  who  produce 
this  material  as  a  side  occupation. 

Military  industry  has  brought  considerable  advance  upon 
some  of  the  above-mentioned  productions  of  agriculture.  In- 
stances of  it  may  be  given  as  follows: 

In  purchasing  cattle  for  canning,  the  military  provision  fac- 
tories pay  a  higher  price  than  is  paid  in  the  general  market  and 
take  particular  care  in  selection.  This  has  the  effect  of  en- 
couraging stock  farmers  to  improve  their  cattle  year  after 
year.     Rice,  wheat  and  their  flours  are  purchased  by  special 


EFFECTS   ON    PRIMITIVE   INDUSTRY  205 

contract  with  industrial  associations.  The  government  en- 
courages and  leads  the  association  to  better  the  grade  of  the 
produce,  and  so  a  steady  progress  is  being  made  in  that  direc- 
tion. In  this  way,  also,  is  the  organization  of  those  industrial 
associations  in  the  farming  districts  of  Japan  helped  in  no  small 
degree  to  develop. 

The  careful  discrimination  by  the  authorities  in  the  quality 
of  the  upper  leather  and  the  sole  leather  used  for  shoe  making 
in  the  clothing  industry  of  the  government  has  encouraged  the 
improvement  of  those  materials,  and  its  effects  have  of  late 
come  to  the  surface.  The  production  of  cowhide  leather  in 
the  country  has  made  remarkable  advance,  being  now  able  to 
bring  forth  good  sound  material.  The  use  of  vegetable  oils  as 
material  for  leather  preservators  has  also  brought  benefit  to 
the  industrial  world. 

Wool,  the  principal  material  for  woolen  industry,  was  for- 
merly wholly  imported  from  foreign  countries,  but  since  the 
Senju  Woolen  Cloth  Factory,  desirous  to  get  a  domestic  supply 
of  wool,  set  the  example  of  shepherding  and  encouraged  private 
enterprises,  there  has  developed  some  wool  growing  in  the 
country.  The  thistle  seed  for  raising  the  wool  of  the  cloth  by 
combing,  which  was  also  imported  before,  is  now  entirely  pro- 
duced at  home  as  the  result  of  the  encouragement  extended  to 
farmers  to  cultivate  the  seed  by  the  above  government  factory 
in  about  the  25th  year  of  Meiji  (1892).  These  facts  have 
added  a  good  deal  to  the  promotion  of  Japanese  agricultural 
interests. 

Besides  what  has  been  mentioned  above,  military  factories 
have  some  influence  upon  such  farm  products  as  greens  and 
fruits  grown  in  their  neighborhood.  These  agricultural  prod- 
ucts must  of  necessity  be  grown  not  far  from  the  market,  and 
as  they  are  consumed  by  a  large  population  of  the  factory  offi- 
cials and  workmen  and  their  family  clustered  in  one  local- 
ity, it  is  usual  that  their  market  prices  keep  higher  than  in 
other  localities,  which  must,  of  course,  make  some  difference 
in  the  income  of  the  farmers  who  supply  the  products. 

We  shall  now  explain  some  of  the  disadvantages  inflicted 


206  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS     ^ 

Upon  farm  villages  by  military  industry.  The  presence  of  a 
military  factory  at  anv  place  induces  the  voung-  men  in  tha± 
locality  to  leaye  their  farms  for  factory  work.  Farms  become 
desolate,  in  consequence  of  the  annual  absorption  of  a  large 
number  of  these  men  by  the  factory,  labor  becomes  scarce, 
wages  rise  and  the  cost  of  production  increases ;  often  it  goes  to 
such  an  extreme  that  a  farmer  of  small  means  is  unable  to  hire 
help  and  has  to  barely  keep  his  farm  by  the  scant  labor  of  the 
aged,  the  young  and  women.  The  military  factory  has  also  the 
unavoidable  tendency  of  enhancing  the  price  of  all  commodities 
in  its  locality  above  that  in  other  places.  That  it  is  driving 
farmers  to  hard  living  is  obvious  from  actual  examples;  the 
fact  is  best  revealed  in  those  newly-developed  localities  where 
naval  stations  have  been  planted,  above  all,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Kure,  Sasebo  and  Yokosuka.  It  is  said  that  farm 
villages  under  such  an  influence  often  lose  in  the  end  from 
military  industry. 

Forestry 

Timber  is  one  of  the  principal  materials  employed  in  the 
military  industry.  It  is  required  in  large  quantities  by  the 
industry,  and  the  amount  of  money  paid  for  it  is  also  large. 
That  military  industry  should  have  some  influence  upon 
forestry  is  clear.  Up  to  this  time,  however,  the  influence  has, 
unlike  other  cases,  been  destructive  rather  than  promotive  to 
the  forestry  of  Japan.  The  forests  have  been  laid  waste,  in- 
stead of  being  made  productive.  Besides  common  woods 
like  cedar,  pine,  fir,  chestnut  and  larch,  the  army  and  the  navy 
use  a  great  deal  of  the  costly  woods,  such  as  chamaecyparis 
obstusa,  selkova  acuminata,  querens  serrata  and  chamae- 
cyparis pisifera.  These  latter  trees,  especially,  take  a  great 
many  years  to  grow,  and  even  if  they  are  replaced  with  young 
trees  immediately  after  being  cut  down,  it  is  not  an  easy 
matter  to  restore  the  forest  in  any  short  space  of  time.  The 
difficulty  was  made  even  greater  in  Japan  by  the  following 
conditions:  Prior  to  the  Restoration,  when  yet  without  the 
means  of  communication  and  the  great  construction  works  as 


EFFECTS    ON    PRIMITIVE   INDUSTRY  207 

today,  Japan  was,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  towns,  thickly  for- 
ested with  tall  trees  and  possessed  an  abundance  of  good 
timber.  After  the  Restoration,  however,  the  initiation  of  the 
military  industry  caused  large  quantities  of  timber  to  be  used 
for  the  construction  of  its  factory  buildings  and  as  materials 
for  its  manufacturing  works;  at  the  same  time  the  demand  for 
timber  was  increased  by  the  construction  of  barracks,  govern- 
ment offices,  and  school  houses,  by  the  laying  of  railways 
(sleepers) ,  the  development  of  private  shipbuilding,  the  open- 
ing of  the  telegraph  and  the  rise  of  electric  light  enterprises 
(electric  poles),  etc.  Added  to  the  increased  demand  for  tim- 
ber, the  improved  facilities  of  communication  in  the  interior 
made  reckless  disafforestation  go  on  universally,  so  that  it  was 
feared,  should  it  be  suffered  to  continue,  no  wooded  lands 
would  be  left  in  the  country.  In  spite  of  that,  the  work  of  re- 
planting in  Japan  long  remained  in  neglect,  and  it  was  only  in 
recent  years  that  anything  was  begun  in  that  direction.  So 
the  desolation  of  forests  knew  no  limit.  This  state  of  things 
is  attributable  to  the  coaction  of  several  causes  and  not  to  one, 
but  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  military  industry  was  a  principal 
factor  in  the  affair.  Even  now  this  industry  is  consuming  the 
■domestic  timber  in  large  amounts  ever  at  an  increasing  rate, 
which,  however,  as  forest  planting  is  now  well  under  way  with 
hopes  of  development,  would  not  cause  any  more  ruining  of 
the  forest  than  at  the  present  time.  Be  that  as  it  may,  it  is 
largely  the  influence  of  military  industry  that  has  brought  this 
rueful  condition  upon  the  forests  in  Japan,  especially  upon 
those  of  the  good  hard-wood  trees,  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made. 

One  of  the  advantages  given  to  foresters  by  military  indus 
try  is  the  application  of  machinery  in  their  timber  making, 
for  the  army  and  the  navy  factories  were  the  first  that  adopted 
timber  machines  in  this  country,  and,  serving  as  model  works, 
have  induced  private  timber  makers  to  use  machinery.  An- 
other advantage  to  the  interests  of  forestry  is  the  opening  up 
of  ways  to  new  forest  regions,  thus :  military  industry  demands 
timber  of  larger  sizes  and  higher  qualities  than  are  usual 


208  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES  I    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS      ,' 

among  the  people,  and  pays  even  liberally  for  it;  this  finds  mar- 
ket for  the  productions  of  retired  parts  of  the  country  hitherto 
valueless  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  communication;  and  it 
acts  as  an  incentive  to,  or  hastens  the  execution  of  such  works 
as  making  new  roads,  building  bridges,  opening  new  shipping 
routes  and  constructing  railways,  in  order  to  facilitate  lumber- 
ing. Instances  are  found  in  many  places  where  circumstances 
of  similar  nature  have  much  assisted  the  development  of  local 
forestry  enterprises,  and  such  should  no  doubt  be  recognized 
as  a  beneficial  effect  of  military  industry.  Further,  mention 
may  also  be  made  of  advantages  derived  by  timber  producers 
relating  to  the  purchase  of  timber  by  military  industry.  For 
example,  such  wood  as  may  be  used  for  the  stock  of  small  arms 
for  the  army  (formerly  beech  was  used ;  now  walnut  is  in  use 
instead)  is  not  always  produced  where  it  is  desired,  though  it 
is  used  in  large  quantities;  so  the  purchase  of  the  material  had 
to  be  made  through  many  merchants;  but  in  recent  years  ac- 
cess was  made  to  the  industrial  associations  of  the  producing 
localities  for  a  direct  deal,  with  the  result  that  the  profit  of  the 
foresters  has  been  increased  considerably.  It  may  be  added 
as  belonging  to  the  same  category  that  the  government  saw- 
mills are  of  late  seeing  better  profits  from  the  direct  purchase 
of  large  amounts  of  timber  made  by  military  factories. 

Mining 

The  influence  exerted  upon  mining  by  military  industry  is 
greater  than  that  upon  agriculture  and  forestry.  Coal  is  an. 
indispensable  material  as  fuel  in  all  the  factories  of  military 
industry.  Its  use  in  Japan  dates  back  to  the  Genroku  Era 
(about  1700),  when  it  was  used  among  the  people  only  in  cook- 
ing or  as  fuel  for  salt  pans,  and  it  was  not  until  2  Ansei  (1855), 
the  year  of  the  establishment  of  the  Naval  Training  Hall  at 
Nagasaki,  that  it  was  used  for  factories  in  general  and  for  steam- 
ships. From  that  time  up  to  the  Restoration  of  Meiji,  coal 
was  used  as  fuel  in  the  military  factories  established  under  the 
Tokugawa  Shogunate.  With  the  reorganization  and  enlarge- 
ment of  the  factories  after  the  Restoration,  the  amount  of  coal 


EFFECTS   ON    PRIMITIVE   INDUSTRY  209 

consumption  grew  larger  every  year,  so  that  the  supply  had 
to  be  partly  obtained  from  foreign  countries.  But  at  the  same 
time,  coal  mining  In  this  country  made  steady  progress,  and 
while  the  demand  for  coal  has  rapidly  Increased  with  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  army  and  the  navy  factories,  the  establishment 
of  private  factories,  the  Increase  of  public  and  private  vessels, 
etc.,  its  production  became  so  large  that  it  amply  covered  the 
whole  domestic  demand  and  a  quantity  was  even  exported 
which  to  this  day  has  always  kept  above  the  amount  of  the  Im- 
ports. Now  that  the  consumption  of  coal  by  the  people  as 
well  as  by  the  ships  of  the  navy  has  enormously  increased,  the 
amount  for  the  army  and  the  na\"y  factories  is  not  so  large 
when  compared  with  the  whole  consumption  of  the  country; 
still,  if  all  the  factories  related  to  military  Industry,  i.e.,  the 
iron  foundry,  the  steel  works,  the  dockyards,  and  the  other 
private  companies,  are  taken  together  with  the  military  fac- 
tories, it  would  make  a  great  consuming  power  of  coal  in  this 
country.  Even  though  their  consumption  of  coal  Is  insignifi- 
cant in  the  coal  Industry  nowadays,  the  names  of  the  military 
factories  should  ever  remain  connected  with  the  coal  mining  of 
Japan  for  the  service  they  did  to  the  development  of  the  in- 
dustry when  yet  in  Its  infancy,  about  the  time  of  the  Restora- 
tion of  Meiji.  ^ 

The  coal  mining  In  the  44th  year  of  Meiji  (191 1)  shows  a 
total  output  of  17,632,710  French  tons  of  the  value  of  55,006,- 
501  yen.  Of  this,  10,774,358  French  tons  were  consumed  at 
home,  and  while  the  amount  of  the  Imports  in  the  same  year 
was  181,363  tons  (1,546,794  yen),  the  exports  reached  3,041,- 
347  tons  (17,898,613  yen).  By  these  figures  will  be  seen  wha^ 
progress  the  coal  mining  industry  in  Japan  has  made. 

As  regards  iron,  the  government,  as  has  been  stated  in  the 
previous  chapter,  encouraged  from  both  the  military  and  the 
economic  standpoints  the  domestic  industries  of  mining  and  re- 
fining iron,  and  went  so  far  In  the  effort  as  to  take  to  itself  the 
work  at  the  Iron  mines  at  Kamaishi  and  Naka  Kozaka,  and  re- 
cently built  an  iron  foundry,  and  started  steel  manufacturing  In 
the  arsenals  of  the  army  and  the  navy.     In  consequence  of  all 

15 


2IO  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

these  the  production  of  iron  has  made  a  gradual  increase.  At  the 
present  time,  the  principal  iron  mines  in  Japan  are  the  Kamai- 
shi  and  Sennin  mines.  These  mines  are  under  private  man- 
"agement,  and  have  each  a  refinery.  The  amount  of  the  home- 
produced  iron  used  by  the  iron  foundry  as  part  of  its  ore 
supply  is  30,000  tons,  worth  about  600,000  yen,  and  the  total 
production  in  the  whole  country  is  according  to  the  returns 
for  44  Meiji  (191 1)  only  17,032,591  kwamme  (about  82,750 
tons),  worth  2,575,514  yen.  Iron  mining  in  Japan  has  yet 
much  room  in  which  to  develop;  nevertheless,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  progress  so  far  achieved  is  due  wholly  to  the  industries 
of  the  army  and  the  navy. 

Zinc  is  very  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  articles  for 
the  army  and  the  navy  and  is  therefore  an  important  material 
in  military  industry.  Especially  in  Japan  its  chief  consumer 
is  the  army  and  the  navy  factories.  From  ancient  times  zinc 
ore  has  been  commonly  found  in  combination  with  copper  and 
lead  ores,  but  it  was  not  much  sought  after  for  the  sole  reason 
that  its  presence  was  detrimental  to  the  refining  of  copper  and 
lead.  When,  as  a  result  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  there 
came  about  a  large  demand  in  Japan  for  zinc,  no  way  was  avail- 
able to  get  this  stufif  in  consequence  of  the  disregard  of  the 
metal  in  the  past.  In  the  38th  year  of  Meiji  (1905),  recourse 
was  had  to  the  exporting  of  zinc  ore  to  foreign  countries  in  or- 
der to  import  it  after  being  refined  there;  and  since  then  a 
large  amount  of  the  ore  has  been  exported  annually,  mostly  to 
^  Belgium  and  the  rest  to  Hongkong,  Germany  and  England, 
and  though  it  was  done  as  an  "export,"  it  was  in  truth  entrust- 
ing those  countries  with  the  refining  of  such  ore.  However, 
for  military  or  other  reasons,  the  government  has  for  several 
years  past  encouraged  the  home  industry  of  refining  zinc  and  - 
succeeded  in  getting  it  done  in  this  country,  so  that  the  im- 
portation of  zinc  is  now  showing  a  considerable  decrease,  and 
will,  it  is  expected,  totally  stop  before  long.  Thus  we  have 
another  example  of  a  mining  industry  developing  through  the 
progress  of  military  industry. 

Among  other  minerals  used  in  military  industry  those  that 


EFFECTS    ON    PRIMITIVE   INDUSTRY  211 

have  rfiade  Industrial  development  under  the  influence  of  the 
same  industry,  directly  or  indirectly,  are  copper,  lead,  salt- 
petre, etc.  The  contribution  made  by  military  industry  to  the 
mining  of  these  minerals,  both  in  management  and  in  skill,  is 
as  noteworthy  in  these  cases  as  in  any  other. 

The  following  table  shows  the  coal  consumption  of  the  fac- 
tories of  the  army  and  the  navy  in  the  ist  year  of  Taisho 
(1912): 

Coal  Consumption  of  Army  and  Navy  Factories,  i  Taisho  (1912) 

Army 

Tons 

Tokyo  Arsenal 76,517 

Osaka  Arsenal 71 ,977 

Clothing  Department 2,110 

Provision  Department 5,638 

Senju  Woolen  Cloth  Factory 18,967 

Railway  Material  Department 689 

Navy 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal 15,446 

Kure  Naval  Arsenal ., .  105,147 

Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal 11 ,998 

Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal 14,300 

Ryoj  un  Dockyard 1 ,845 

Naval  Arsenal 3»426 

Shimose  Powder  Mill 2,032 

Repairing  Yard  of  Ominato  Secondary  Naval  Station 955 

Repairing  Yard  of  Bako  Secondary  Naval  Station 294 

briquette  Manufactory 11, 626 

Total 342,967 


CHAPTER  V 


EFFECTS  ON  COMMERCE 


r 


The  amounts  paid  out  of  the  national  Treasury  for  the  mili- 
ary industry  differ  each  year.  According  to  the  statistics  for 
the  last  few  years,  the  total  expenditure  for  military  and  naval 
factories  varies  from  70,000,000  yen  to  80,000,000  yen.  The 
budget  for  the  first  year  of  Taisho  (1912)  shows  it  at  about 
75,000,000  yen,  including  the  Ordinary  Annual  Expenditures, 
the  Incidental  Expenditure,  and  the  Special  Accounts.  Of 
this  amount,  52,000,000  yen  is  for  the  purchase  of  materials, 
18,400,000  yen  for  workmen's  wages,  and  the  balance  for  sala- 
ries, etc.,  and  of  the  above  purchases  over  16,300,000  yen 
worth  is  imported.  The  materials  purchased  for  the  industry 
are  several  hundred  varieties  of  articles  from  the  heaviest 
machinery  to  the  most  diminutive  thing,  and  if  things  of  daily 
need  of  the  officials  and  workmen  are  included,  they  will  cover 
a  very  wide  scope  of  articles  sold  in  the  market.  The  most  of 
these  purchases  are  made  through  native  and  foreign  merchants 
and  it  is  very  seldom  that  any  of  the  supplies  are  purchased 
direct  from  manufacturers.  No  doubt  such  a  large  sum  ex- 
pended for  such  numerous  varieties  of  merchandise  greatly 
influences  commerce  both  domestic  and  foreign.  It  is  particu- 
larly the  case  with  machinery,  or  materials  for  arms  and  war- 
ships. These  things  come  in  large  amounts  when  ordered,  and 
require  experience  on  the  part  of  the  dealers  who  receive  the 
order;  therefore,  the  purchases  are  made  only  among  certain 
tjualified  parties,  either  by  free  contract  or  by  limited  tender. 
Such  people  are  called  "goyo  shonin,"  that  class  of  merchants 
who  do  government  service  as  a  specialty,  as  is  also  the  case 
with  the  army  and  navy  of  any  other  country.  They  have  a 
very  close  interest  in  the  military  industry,  and  every  change 
in  the  activity  of  the  industry  is  directly  a  change  in  the  activ- 
ity of  their  business  movements.  Their  activity  is  best  ex- 
212 


EFFECTS   ON   COMMERCE  213 

hibited  in  times  of  war,  and  the  profits  they  so  derive  are  enor- 
mous, a  fact  that  can  easily  be  seen  from  many  instances  in 
which  they  have  suddenly  become  great  merchants,  through 
the  Civil  War  of  the  loth  year  (1877),  the  wars  with  China 
and  Russia,  etc.  Most  of  the  wealthy  firms  now  prospering 
in  this  country  are  "goyo  shonin"  who  are  connected  with 
military  factories.  All  this  is  enough  to  explain  what  an  in- 
fluence the  military  industry  has  on  the  great  central  commerce. 
But  its  influence  is  not  confined  to  this.  It  has  also  much  to 
do  with  the  commerce  in  the  localities  of  military  factories, 
where  those  merchants  who  deal  in  supplies  outside  of  mate- 
rials for  manufacturing  purposes,  others  who  keep  shops  for 
articles  of  daily  need  for  the  officials  and  workmen  of  the  fac- 
tories, and  even  such  small  traders  as  keep  eating  houses,  find 
benefit  as  much  as  their  money  invested  will  bring.  However, 
people  who  have  no  interest  in  the  military  industry  or  in  the 
district  in  which  military  factories  are  located  may  not  feel 
any  such  influence  at  all.  Often  the  influence  of  the  military 
industry  is  felt  badly  in  the  general  economy  of  the  country 
when  perchance  an  excessive  outlay  made  on  account  of  mili- 
tary works  has  brought  about  a  general  depression  and  dull 
trade.  Such  an  experience  is  being  had  in  Japan  at  the  present 
time. 

In  brief,  the  military  industry  has  as  great  an  influence  upon 
commerce  as  it  has  upon  other  industries, — sometimes  even 
a  greater  influence.  The  center  of  industry  or  commerce  of  a 
country  being  as  it  is,  it  often  becomes  the  ruling  power  of  the 
money  market  and  foreign  trade,  as  is  clear  from  instances 
which  show  well  enough  how  great  its  influence  could  be. 

Home  Trade 

The  materials  required  in  the  military  industry  are  taken 
as  much  as  possible  from  domestic  products  for  the  purpose  of 
attaining  "independence  in  military  equipment"  and  of  con- 
forming to  the  industrial  policy  of  this  country  to  encourage 
the  development  of  home  production.  This  has  greatly  in- 
creased the  demand  for  the  native  materials  in  recent  years. 


214  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

Moreover,  also  for  the  same  purpose,  the  manufacture  of  war- 
ships and  other  finished  articles  of  war  is  as  a  rule  carried  on  at 
home,  no  foreign  goods  being  imported  except  those  foreign 
patents  and  other  objects  of  special  workmanship  impossible 
to  make  in  Japan.  This,  tending  to  increase  the  manufacture 
of  arms  and  warships,  and  other  works  of  military  industry 
in  general,  has,  together  with  the  increase  of  the  demand  for  the 
home-produced  materials,  had  the  effect  of  promoting  the 
home  trade,  increasing  its  business  transactions  very  greatly. 
It  is  to  be  especially  noted  that,  as  the  result  of  careful  selec- 
tion made  in  the  purchase  of  military  supplies  by  the  authori- 
ties, the  custom  has  been  established  among  traders  to  refrain 
from  dealing  in  poorly-made  articles,  much  to  the  mainte- 
nance and  elevation  of  business  morality. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  articles  used  as  materials  at 
military  factories,  which  are  of  domestic  production  and  are 
in  considerable  demand  at  the  present  time,  to  show  to  what 
extent  the  home  trade  may  be  influenced  by  the  military 
industry: 

Files,  crucibles,  copper  bars,  copper  plates,  brass  bars,  brass 
plates,  brass  pipes,  copper  pipes  (part), ^ electric  wire  and  cable, 
copper,  lead,  steel  plates,  tool  steel  and  common  steel  (part), 
tools,  instruments,  machines  and  their  accessories,  carbon  bars 
and  carbon  plates  (part) ,  hemp,  hemp  cloth,  cotton,  gum,  paper, 
ebonite,  thick  hemp  cloth,  hemp  cloth  for  padding,  hemp  cloth 
for  lining  of  caps,  hemp  cloth  for  tents,  cotton  manufactures 
(spindle  band,  spun  yarn),  visors,  thick  cotton  cloth,  hempen 
manufactures  (spun  yarn,  selvage  yarn,  hempen  ropes),  spun 
cotton  cloth,  calico,  khaki  woolen  cloth,  woolen  cloth  for  gai- 
ters, mompa  (a  kind  of  cotton  flannel),  brick,  timber,  glass 
plates,  glass  tubes,  paper  bags,  straw  bags,  wooden  boxes, 
ropes,  tops  with  roll,  chemicals  (pharmaceutical)  (part),  al- 
cohol, starch,  vegetable  oil,  animal  oil,  sulphuric  acid,  other 
acids,  wax,  solid  salt,  powder  salt,  thistle  nuts,  sole  shoe  leather 
(surface),   upper  shoe  leather,   sole   shoe  leather   (middle), 

*The  articles  followed  by  the  word  "part"  are  only  partly  purchased  at  home, 
the  rest  being  imported. 


EFFECTS   ON   COMMERCE  21$ 

spikes,  brim  leather,  jowl  piece,  hide  manufactures,  (belting, 
oxhide,  strap  leather,  leather  belt),  unsai  (thick  cotton  stuff), 
cotton  threads,  upper  leather  sewing  yarn,  Berlin  wool  for 
hosiery,  cotton  belts,  eyelet  strings,  badge  paper,  paddings, 
warming  belts,  hides  and  leather  (for  arms),  ammonia,  zinc 
(part),  saltpetre,  pig  iron  (part),  alloys  of  iron  (part),  cement, 
coal,  coke,  hematite  (part) ,  clay  for  crucibles  (part) ,  lead  (part) , 
copper,  barley  flour,  potatoes,  salt,  wheat  flour,  sugar,  soy, 
mirin  (sweet  sake),  vegetables  for  pickles,  rice  flour,  sesame, 
materials  for  artificial  wool  (for  socks  and  gloves),  wool,  wool 
grease  (leather  oil),  sulphate  of  soda,  dyestuffs  (acetic  indigo 
ball,  acetic  ammonia). 

The  influence  that  the  military  industry  has  upon  home 
trade  is  not  confined  to  the  business  in  the  industrial  mate- 
rials mentioned  above.  In  fact  the  benefits  are  equally  shared 
by  all  trades.  At  any  place  where  factories  are  planted,  busi- 
ness is  enlivened  and  bustling  leading  to  the  development  of 
the  cities  and  towns,  and  directly  or  indirectly,  of  all  kinds  of 
trades  in  the  whole  extent  of  the  district. 

It  may  be  added  that  some  of  the  articles  made  in  the  by- 
work  of  the  military  industry  for  sale  in  the  general  market  or 
on  application  often  have  considerable  effect  upon  domestic 
and  foreign  trades.  The  Tokyo  and  Osaka  Arsenals  are  using 
their  spare  power  out  of  the  regular  work  in  the  manufacture 
of  articles  such  as  can  not  be  made  by  any  private  factory  on 
account  of  the  legal  restriction  or  of  deficiency  in  its  equipment 
for  the  work,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of  such  articles  as 
are  being  largely  imported.  These  articles,  together  with  the 
by-products  of  the  arsenals'  works,  are  sold  through  the  mar- 
ket or  made  for  renting,  all  of  the  receipts  so  aggregated  each 
year  being  as  shown  in  the  following  table.  Besides  this  work 
of  the  two  arsenals,  similar  work  is  being  done  by  other  military 
factories;  for  instance,  the  Senju  Woolen  Cloth  Factory  makes 
blankets,  artificial  felt  and  other  woolen  goods  for  the  general 
use  of  the  people,  while  the  Naval  Powder  Mill  offers  its  by- 
product, sulphate  of  soda,  to  the  open  market.  All  these  are 
affecting  directly  or  indirectly  the  interests  of  domestic  and 
foreign  trade. 


2l6 


MILITARY   industries:    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 


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effects  on  commerce  21 7 

Foreign  Trade 

The  arms,  war  vessels  and  materials  for  military  industry 
imported  since  the  Restoration  of  Meiji  up  to  the  present  time 
amount  to  an  enormous  sum.  It  is  evident  from  an  examina- 
tion of  the  history  of  the  Japanese  foreign  trade  that  the  excess 
of  imports  during  most  of  this  time  is  mainly  due  to  the  large 
amount  of  imported  war  materials.  From  the  26.  year  of 
Meiji  (1869),  in  which  the  military  system  of  Japan  was  re- 
formed, and  improved  arms  and  war  vessels  were  decided  to  be 
adopted,  to  the  time  of  the  Satsuma  Rebellion,  the  continual 
enlargement  of  military  preparations  kept  the  foreign  trade 
always  with  an  excess  of  imports.  The  same  condition  con- 
tinued until  13  or  14  Meiji  (1880  or  1881).  Then  the  trade 
began  to  increase  on  the  side  of  exports,  and  this  with  the 
slackening  in  the  work  of  the  military  preparations  went  to 
keep  the  balance  on  the  favorable  sideuntil  27  Meiji  (1894),  the 
year  the  Sino- Japanese  War  commenced,  with  the  exception 
of  the  years  21  and  23  Meiji  (1888  and  1890),  in  which  the  im- 
ports exceeded  the  exports  as  a  result  of  the  Itsukushima  and 
three  other  warships  being  ordered  from  abroad.  But  again 
there  came  an  expansion  of  military  preparations  during  and 
after  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  and  all  at  once  the  amount  of 
imports  rose  to  a  point  three  times  as  much  as  the  amount  of 
exports;  next  came  the  new  rule  over  Formosa  and  then  the 
North  China  affair  of  33  Meiji  (1900),  necessitating  the  ex- 
pansion of  military  preparations,  which  continued  until  37 
Meiji  (1904),  the  year  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  and  kept 
the  imports  in  excess  all  that  while,  in  spite  of  the  development 
and  a  very  good  showing  of  exports.  The  requirements  of  the 
Russo-Japanese  War  and  of  the  post-bellum  expansion  of 
military  preparations  caused  the  excess  of  imports  to  grow,  as 
the  purchase  of  arms  and  war  vessels  from  abroad  grew  larger. 
It  is  clear  from  these  facts  that  in  Japan  the  enlargement  of 
military  preparations  is  the  most  powerful  agent  that  deter- 
mines the  balance  of  imports  and  exports.  Most  recently, 
however,  the  government,  in  pursuance  of  the  policy  of  in- 
dependence of  war,  adopted  protectionism  for  all  articles  con- 


2l8  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

nected  with  military  industry,  be  it  arms,  ships,  or  any  other 
war  materials,  and  as  a  result  the  amount  of  imports  has  not  a 
ittle  decreased.  This  is  most  remarkably  the  case  with  the 
iavy.  Before  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  the  Japanese  Navy 
built  by  its  own  hand  only  small  warships  of  about  3,000  tons, 
such  as  the  Hashidate,  Akitsushima,  Tsushima,  Niitaka  and 
Otowa,  the  materials  having  all  been  imported  even  for  those, 
while  all  the  battleships  and  armored  cruisers  taking  part  in 
the  same  war  were  built  in  foreign  dockyards.  However,  the 
war  made  Japan  discover  the  necessity  of  building  all  large 
ships  at  home  and  caused  a  revolution  in  the  shipbuilding  in- 
dustry of  the  country. 

r  To  be  fitted  for  the  new  work,  machinery  was  purchased 
from  foreign  countries  for  several  years  subsequent  to  the  war. 
At  first  all  materials  of  steel  were  imported,  but  later  they 
were  manufactured  at  home,  as  the  dockyard  factories  were 
equipped  to  the  full,  only  the  ore  and  pig  iron  having  to  be  im- 
ported as  their  raw  material.  Side  by  side  with  this,  there 
developed  iron  foundries  and  the  industry  of  munition  manu- 
facture at  large,  and  as  those  advances  were  made,  the  de- 
mand for  foreign  goods  gradually  receded.  Today  such  de- 
mand is  limited  merely  to  patented  and  other  special  articles, 

v^and  certain  kinds  of  machinery,  and  therefore  the  amount  of 
imports  is  greatly  falling  off. 

'  Thus  imports  are  gradually  decreasing  as  the  home  produc- 
tion of  the  military  requirements  increases;  yet,  at  present 
these  materials  occupy  a  principal  place  in  imports  and  are  as 
important  a  factor  in  the  Japanese  foreign  trade  as  they  ever 
were.  To  enable  the  reader  to  gain  an  idea  of  what  influence 
the  military  industry  has  upon  the  foreign  trade,  we  shall  add 
in  the  following  pages  a  list  of  the  foreign  articles  in  demand  at 
present  by  the  army  and  navy,  a  table  giving  a  comparison  of 
annual  importations  (in  value)  of  munitions  made  in  the  past 
years,  and  tables  showing  the  imports  of  the  principal  materi- 
als for  military  industry — iron  and  other  metals,  coal,  and 

""  materials  for  woolen  cloth  manufacture. 


EFFECTS   ON    COMMERCE  2I9 

Articles  imported  at  present: 

Hemp  cloth,  mompa  (a  kind  of  cotton  flannel),  threads  for 
sole  sewing,  Berlin  wool  for  hosiery,  threads  for  leather  sewing 
machine,  spikes,  glass  for  eyeglasses,  machine  oil,  olive  oil, 
olein,  alcohol  (to  make  up  the  domestic  shortage),  corrosive 
sublimate,  fuchsine,  diphenul  amine,  card  clothing,  leather 
manufactures  (belts,  rubbers),  emery  polishers,  paper  for 
blueprinting,  nitrate  of  soda,  chemicals  (pharmaceutical), 
machinery,  machine  accessories,  steel  pipes,  tin  plates,  tool 
steel,  platinum  wires,  iron  plates  for  electricity,  steel  wires, 
steel  plates,  carbon  bars,  carbon  plates,  special  steel,  nickel, 
antimony,  semi-manufactured  steel  for  machines,  files,  nails, 
tin,  aluminum,  nickel,  alloys  of  iron,  zinc,  lead,  pig  iron,  tops 
for  woolen  cloth  manufacture,  noils  for  woolen  cloth  manu- 
facture, tin,  lead,  saltpetre,  hematite,  clays  for  crucibles,  hops, 
wool  grease  (leather  oil),  gelatin  orange  (pigment)  materials 
for  leather,  fur,  wool,  dyestuflFs,  belts  and  materials,  India 
rubber,  varnishes,  shellacs,  ammonia  for  refrigerating. 

Comparison  of  Annual  Imports  of  Munitions,  in  Cost  Value 

Years                               Arms,  Ammunition  Ships  and  Shipbuilding 

and  Explosives  Materials  for  Navy 

Yen  Yen 

32  Meiji  (1899) 8,290,546  305-245 

33  "      (1900) .  : 9,220,367  16,759,023 

34  "      (1901) 9,294,025  16,491,917 

35  "      (1902) 4,818,275  13.995.149 

36  "      (1903) 3.450,590  592,060 

37  "      (1904) 

38  "      (1905) ■  

39  "      (1906) 5,798,699  27,616,800 

40  "      (1907) 5,595,072  293,640 

41  "      (1908) 4,924,428  679,122 

42  "      (1909) 2,014,041  683,145 

43  "      (1910) 2,769,224  33,325 

44  "      (1911) 6,586,538  1,371,114 

45  "      and  I  Taisho  (1912) 16,375,762  10,609 

Besides  what  is  shown  in  the  above  table,  there  are  to  be 
considered  the  imports  of  materials  for  woolen  cloth  manu- 
facture tabulated  hereafter, ^  and  imports  of  the  materials  for 
the  clothing  and  provision  industries  of  the  army,  amounting 
to  about  300,000  yen  annually. 

^  Post,  p.  222. 


220 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 


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M  ino  t~-0  O»oo  nOOpO"^  ^O  OvO  NrJ-NoOooOPOO*t^oo^r^ooOooo*       --—       _-.-  — 


ininOvONPO'tO  inroi'^i'it^N  ^n  po  poo  n  r~o  m  m  O  ^t 
'  PO  NO       N  >no"  m"  rl  '^cC'Occ  ^in  in  ol  n  rooo  000  00  n  o"  O  po  n  r^  rt 


_     „ N  POM  Tf        _         _.      .    , 

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00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000XO0*O*OtO*OtO*Ot^Oi^^^ 


EFFECTS   ON   COMMERCE 


221 


Iron  Wires,  Iron  Bars  and  Iron  Plates  Imported 


43  Meij 

i  (1910) 

44  Meij 

i  (1911) 

45  Meiji 

(I9I2)» 

Countries 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Kin 

Yen 

Kin 

Yen 

Kin 

Yen 

England .  . . 

161,954,676 

12,176,198 

199,140,547 

14.5s6.076 

255.806,275 

17,742,316 

France  .... 

1,200,798 

70,625 

1,469,629 

150,190 

248,100  ' 

23,014 

Germany .  . 

130,327.041 

4.933.755 

147,227,759 

5,439,732 

205,722,497 

8,120,706 

Belgium  .  .  . 

73.856.131 

2,862,076 

54.570,657 

2,027,830 

80,052,280 

3,028,842 

Austria .... 

1,138,004 

389.430 

3,634.18s 

583,747 

1,085.534 

241,824 

Sweden .... 

2.062,213 

244,017 

4,836.772 

361,498 

3.095,084 

252,108 

U.  S.  A. .  . . 

11,755.710 

993,332 

37.661,028 

2,803,606 

140,230,399 

8,020,268 

Others  .... 

12.532 

688 

556.238 

20,462 

4.655.789 

223,298 

Total.. 

382,307,10s 

21,670,121 

449.096.815 

25,943,141 

690,895,958 

37.652,376 

Iron  Tubes  and  Iron  Pipes  Imported 


Countries 

43  Meij 

I  (1910) 

44  Meiji  (191 1) 

45  Meiji 

(I9I2)» 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

England .  . . 
Germany  .  . 
Belgium  . .  . 

U.S.  A 

Others  .... 

Kin 
13,448,903 
5,515.382 

185,863 
2s.351.075 

267.528 

Yen 

1,191,624 

441,961 

12,604 

1,557,618 

36,997 

Kin 
16,390,967 

12,782,874 

27,076 

25,924,245 

330,055 

Yen 

1,594,526 

1,036,912 

2,717 

1,581,804 

52,417 

Kin 

1,337,408 

1,237,462 

33.235 

2,352,266 

2,351 

Yen 
13,278,192 
12,772,161 

332,674 

33,577,368 

26,855 

Total.. 

44.768,751 

3,240,804 

55,455,217 

4,268,376 

4,962,722 

59,987,250 

Iron  Ingots  Imported 


Countries 

43  Meij 

(1910) 

44Mei] 

i  (1911) 

45  Meiji 

(I9I2)'' 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 

Value 

Kin 

Yen 

Kin 

Yen 

Kin 

Yen 

China 

52,821,391 

965.136 

94,806,368 

1,817,606 

17,791,219 

451.862 

Kantoshu . . 

65 

5 

England . .  . 

128,291,499 

2,601,992 

214,029,897 

4,705,229 

267,612,231 

S.970,985 

Germany. . 

2,272,653 

138,190 

3,838,009 

121,588 

17,440,205 

501,880 

Sweden .... 

3,882,269 

263,740 

10,618,126 

500,747 

10,673,723 

480,669 

U.  S.  A 

136,301 

2,455 

45,360 

I, III 

1,051,688 

27,209 

Others 

481 

680 

248,501 

19,984 

85,953,80s 

1,962,110 

Total.. 

187,404.594 

3,972,193 

323,586,326 

7,166,270 

400,522,871 

9,394,71s 

•  45  Meiji  is  the  same  as  i  Taisho. 


222  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

Materials  Imported  for  Woolen  Cloth  Manufacture 


Articles 


Wool 

Dyestuffs.  .  .  . 

Oil 

Tops . 

Card  Clothing 
Machinery.  .  .< 
Others 

Total.  .  . 


43  Meiji  (1910) 


Yen 
1,455,520 
13,510 
54,263 
1,116 
13,956 
25,535 
29,947 


1,593,847 


44  Meiji  (1911) 


Yen 

1,389,262 

22,283 

29.399 

2,411 

7,342 

46,20s 

30,750 


1,527.652 


45  Meiji  (1912) ' 


Yen 
1,559,056 
28,909 
35,947 

2,140 

105,660 

27,570 


1,759,282 


'45  Meiji  is  the  same  as  i  Taisho. 


Annual  Imports  of  Coal 


Years 


1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
187s 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
188s 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 


Quantity 


Tons 
3.967 
7,112 
5,674 
9,070 

10,733 

10,522 

8,934 
12,752 
19,166 
19,035 
36.444 
25.711 
22.207 
33.227 
22,076 
17.242 

4.246 
10,785 

7.529 
11.734 

4.341 

4.520 
1 1 .494 


Value 


Yen 

33,754 

96,739 

24,963 

145.237 

179,758 

236,711 

99,960 

147,513 

193,661 

159.073 

257.122 

164,636 

156,227 

256,625 

149,716 

103,322 

21,68s 

85,038 

65,383 

56,275 

29,880 

40,01s 

110,497 


Years 


1891. 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897. 
1898, 
1899. 
1900. 

1901 . 

1902 . 
1903. 
1904. 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908. 
1909. 
1910. 
1911 . 
1912, 


Quantity 


Tons 

14,990 

12,725 

7,505 

37,545 

69,482 

49,919 

69,676 

42.635 

51.563 

99.449 

113.536 

73.727 

121,317 

622,831 

298,320 

21,855 

18,609 

30,88s 

115,028 

173,22s 

181,363 

305,882 


Value 


Yen 

142,918 

105,380 

81,707 

472,757 

853,080 

519.380 

578,570 

399,189 

937,094 

2,100,054 

2,542,133 

1,298,374 

1,972,923 

12,199,884 

5,464,722 

259,990 

333,957 

629,867 

1,090,73s 

1,496,916 

1,546,794 

2,408,867 


CHAPTER  VI 
EFFECTS  ON  COMMUNICATION 

The  movement  to  places  where  military  factories  are  located 
from  other  places  in  the  country,  and  from  colonies  and  foreign 
ports;  the  movement  of  great  quantities  of  implements, 
machinery,  and  materials  relating  to  military  industry,  out  of 
the  localities  of  factories  to  various  points;  or  the  increased 
movement  of  commodities  into  and  out  of  the  cities  and  towns 
newly  formed  or  expanded  by  the  presence  of  military  indus- 
try— these  have  naturally  had  a  great  effect  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  means  of  communication  between  those  factory 
localities  and  others  as,  for  instance,  traffic  newly  created  or 
facilitated  by  the  opening  of  a  building,  or  repairing,  or  extend- 
ing of  railways,  roads,  bridges,  shipping  routes,  vessels,  tele- 
graph and  telephone  lines,  etc.  Although  no  doubt  can  be  en- 
tertained regarding  the  influence  of  military  industry  upon 
communication — upon  all  such  means  of  communication  and  all 
those  cases  of  the  movements  of  goods — it  is  a  difficult  matter 
to  distinguish  this  influence  from  other  influences  or  causes 
and  set  it  forth  in  concrete  form,  in  connection  with  all  and 
every  one  of  the  localities  of  military  factories.  In  fact,  in 
many  cases  this  is  true.  The  hardest  cases  are  when  it  is 
attempted  with  large  cities  like  Tokyo  and  Osaka,  where  the 
military  factories  have  existed  from  earlier  times  than  in  other 
places  and  have  made  gradual  development  along  with  the 
development  of  the  cities  which  commenced  with  the  Restora- 
tion of  Meiji.  There  are  some  truck  roads,  river  facilities, 
roads,  bridges,  telegraphs,  telephones  for  the  special  use  of  the 
military  factories,  but  they  are  not  worth  describing  as  viewed 
from  the  side  of  general  traffic. 

In  other  places,  where  there  are  military  factories  and  which 
have  existed  as  cities  from  early  days,  traffic  has  developed 
almost  under  the  same  conditions  as  in  those  large  cities,  and 

223 


224  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

there  is  nothing  that  can  be  mentioned  as  a  special  influence  of 
the  miUtary  factories.  The  influence  of  military  industry  is 
discernible  with  comparative  clearness  only  in  some  of  the 
means  of  communication  for  those  newly  opened  regions  where 
some  of  the  naval  ports  have  been  located,  and  in  ship  lines 
connecting  this  country  with  these  foreign  lands  where  there 
are  produced  such  articles  as  are  imported  in  large  quantities 
for  the  military  industry. 

While,  in  general,  military  industry  has  had  the  effect  of  de- 
veloping communication — not  only  inland,  but  also  with  the 
colonies  or  with  foreign  countries — it  often  has  proved  the 
contrary.  It  is  seriously  hindering  the  sea  traffic  in  those  re- 
gions coming  within  the  territories  of  the  naval  ports  wherein 
the  grounds  of  military  factories  are  included  by  prohibiting 
the  entrance  of  ships  or  else  restricting  it  under  certain  tonnage 
limits.  ' 

We  shall  now  explain  those  influences  of  military  industry 
upon  communication  that  are  discernible  by  dividing  them 
into  the  two  classes  of  land  carriage  and  water  carriage. 

Land  Carriage 

It  is  quite  difficult  to  state  the  military  influence  upon  the 
development  of  land  carriage  apart  from  other  influences  which 
might  have  acted  upon  it  at  the  same  time;  but  as  we  have 
stated  in  the  previous  section,  such  of  the  means  of  communi- 
cation in  the  districts  of  the  naval  ports  as  railways  which  con- 
nect the  ports  with  the  main  lines  can  be  considered  as  having 
been  born  distinctly  under  the  influences  of  military  industry. 
So  in  the  following  pages  we  shall  briefly  describe  some  of  the 
land  communications  around  those  naval  ports,  giving  a  sep- 
arate account  for  each  of  the  localities. 

Yokosuka  and  Its  Connections 

The  construction  of  the  main  line  of  the  Tokkaido  Railway, 
which  was  started  in  January,  19  Meiji  (1886),  was  followed  by 
the  construction  of  a  branch  line  of  ten  miles  and  five  and  one 
half  chains  connecting  Yokosuka  with  the  main  line  at  Ofuna, 
the  work  being  started  in  April,  20  Meiji  (1887).     This  branch 


EFFECTS   ON    COMMUNICATION  225 

line  was  inaugurated  in  June,  22  Meiji  (1889),  ^^^  upon  the 
completion  of  the  main  line  (Tokyo-Kobe)  in  the  following 
month,  quite  revolutionized  the  land  communication  with 
Yokosuka  and  points  in  its  neighborhood,  where  thencefor- 
ward the  passengers  and  commodities  were  more  and  more 
collected  and  dispersed.  When  in  37  Meiji  (1904)  there  was  a 
general  enlargement  of  military  factories  on  account  of  the 
Russian  War,  a  station  called  Taura  was  added  on  this  line  to 
facilitate  communication  with  Uranogo  Village,  the  place  where 
the  arms  manufactory  of  the  Yokosuka  Arsenal  is  situated. 
Now  in  thinking  of  this  extension  of  railway  to  Yokosuka,  it 
will  be  easy  to  see  that,  if  that  place,  then  an  out-of-the-way 
village  of  farmers  and  fishermen  to  which  access  was  had  only 
by  water,  as  by  land  access  was  next  to  impossible,  had  been 
left  to  itself  and  were  without  the  establishment  of  a  naval 
station,  especially  of  an  arsenal  or  dockyard,  things  would 
have  been  quite  contrary.  There  would  never  have  been  a 
branch  line  extended  there,  nor  would  it  ever  have  been  even 
dreamed  of  that  such  quickworkshould  be  made  of  railway  con- 
struction as  was  witnessed  in  the  extension  of  the  line,  com- 
pleting it  at  the  time  when  the  main  line  itself  was  not  yet 
through,  and  that  therefore  such  ready  construction  of  a  line 
to  Yokosuka  is  wholly  ascribable  to  the  position  of  the  locality 
as  a  place  of  naval  industries  where  traffic  steadily  grew  heavy 
and  both  military  and  economic  requirements  demanded  rail- 
way connection  of  that  place  with  the  outside  world. 

As  to  other  means  of  communication  in  special  connection 
with  the  naval  town,  there  are  the  Uraga  Stage  (between 
Uraga  and  Yokosuka),  the  Nagai  Stage  (between  Yokosuka 
and  Nagai),  the  Uraga  Motor  Car  (Between  Yokosuka  and 
Uraga).  Each  has  a  fairly  good  number  of  passengers,  mostly 
of  the  arsenal  officers  and  workmen,  who  take  daily  passage  in 
them  from  their  country  dwellings. 

Kure  and  Its  Connections 

Kure  is  a  naval  port  lying  at  a  point  over  ten  miles  off  of  the 
Sanyo  Railway  Line.  Between  the  Sanyo  Line  and  Kure,  out 
to  the  coast  line,  it  is  hill  after  hill  and  allows  of  no  easy  pas- 

16 


226  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES".   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

sage,  which  naturally  made  the  early-time  communication  be- 
tween this  place  and  neighboring  localities,  especially  Hiro- 
shima, accomplished  generally  by  sea.  In  the  years  24  and  25 
Meiji  (1891  and  1892)  the  work  on  the  main  line  of  the  Sanyo 
Railway  gradually  made  headway  and  the  line  was  extended 
through  the  section  near  Kure.  There  the  distance  between 
the  line  and  Kure  was  only  a  short  one,  but  on  the  other  hand 
the  formation  of  the  country  was  such  that  to  construct  a 
railway  required  tunneling  work  of  so  difficult  a  nature  and  at 
so  many  places  that  it  would  involve  heavy  outlay  of  ex- 
pense. This  in  the  condition  of  the  traffic,  etc.,  in  those  days 
was  by  no  means  a  remunerative  work  for  a  private  company  to 
undertake  and  therefore  no  intention  of  immediately  building 
a  branch  line  over  that  district  was  had  by  the  people  of  the 
Sanyo  Railway  Co.  But  then  Kure  was  the  site  of  a  naval 
port  which  had  the  prospect  of  being  greatly  enlarged  and  be- 
coming important,  so  that  both  from  military  requirements 
and  for  the  future  development  of  the  economic  conditions  of 
those  localities  the  government  took  the  responsibility  of  set- 
ting apart  under  the  Railway  Law*  a  railway  of  twelve  miles 
and  thirty-five  chains  between  Kure  and  Kaidaichi  for  the 
government's  First  Period  Railway  Construction,  to  be  com- 
pleted in  twelve  years  from  the  time  it  was  laid  down.  The 
War  of  27  and  28  Meiji  (1894- 1895)  ^^^  the  consequent  ex- 
pansion of  national  expenditures,  however,  hindered  the  reali- 
zation of  the  work,  but  at  last  the  railway  was  begun  in  33 
Meiji  (1900).  The  work  progressed  with  due  success,  and 
when  the  Russo-Japanese  War  came  it  was  pushed  with 
redoubled  force,  and  in  November,  37  Meiji  (1904),  the  whole 
line  of  the  railway  was  completed.  For  the  sake  of  con- 
venience, the  government  leased  the  railway  to  the  Sanyo 
Railway  Co.  and  made  it  open  the  line  for  traffic  on  December 
I  of  the  same  year.  However,  as  in  39  Meiji  (1906)  the  Sanyo 
Railway  was  bought  up  by  the  government  by  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  law  of  railway  nationalization,  the  whole  system 
of  the  railway,  including  the  Kure  Branch  Line,  came  under 

'  Law  No.  4,  issued  June  20,  25  Meiji  (1892). 


EFFECTS   ON    COMMUNICATION  227 

official  management.  This  facilitated  the  traffic  or  connec- 
tion of  the  main  and  the  branch  lines  very  much.  Especially 
improved  was  the  communication  between  Hiroshima  and 
Kure,  where  more  than  ten  trains  were  run  every  day.  Now, 
how  has  this  railway  to  Kure  come  to  exist?  Just  as  the  city 
of  Kure  itself  has  developed  to  its  present  state  through  the 
establishment  of  the  naval  depot,  especially  of  the  arsenal, 
so  has  the  railway  come  to  find  its  existence.  If  Kure  had 
been  without  the  naval  arsenal,  it  would  never  have  expected 
to  see  any  railway  built  to  it. 

An  electric  car  service  is  facilitating  local  traffic  in  Kure. 
The  company  was  started  as  the  Kure  Tramway  Co.  in  39 
Meiji  (19.06).  Afterward  it  introduced  the  electric  system  and 
altered  its  name  to  the  Kure  Electric  Railway  Co.  Later  it 
was  again  altered  to  the  present  Hiroshima-Kure  Electric 
Power  Co. 

Saseho  and  Its  Connections 

In  19  Meiji  (1886)  a  proposition  for  constructing  a  Kyushu 
railway  gained  influence  among  officials  and  business  men  of 
Fukuoka,  Kumamoto  and  Saga  Prefectures.  After  many 
meetings  had  been  held,  the  matter  was  at  last  decided,  and  a 
committee  was  elected  to  organize  the  company.  Just  at  that 
time  the  government  started  the  construction  of  a  naval  sta- 
tion at  Sasebo  in  Nagasaki  Prefecture,  and  considerable  traffic 
of  business  people  and  laborers  was  being  established  to  and 
from  the  newly-appointed  place.  Reference  was  made  to  this 
place  in  the  application  filed  in  January,  20  Meiji  (1887),  by 
the  organizing  committee  of  the  Kyushu  Railway  Co.,  which 
in  one  passage  reads  as  follows:  "Sogi  (a  terminus  of  the  pro- 
jected Kyushu  railway  line)  is  but  3  ri  (7I  miles)  from  Sasebo, 
a  distance  that  can  be  covered  in  a  few  moments'  time.  One 
the  railway  connection  between  Sogi  and  Kumamoto  (site  of  a^ 
garrison)  is  completed,  it  should  not  require  quite  half  a  day 
to  send  the  garrison  troops,  arms  and  supplies  from  Kuma- 
moto out  to  the  naval  station;  and  thus  in  an  emergency  the 
forces  of  both  the  army  and  the  navy  can  be  concentrated  in 


228  MILITARY  INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

readiness  to  start  overseas  at  a  moment's  notice,  to  the  great 
facilitation  of  our  military  movements."  In  February  of  the 
same  year  a  petition  was  filed  by  a  party  in  Nagasaki  Prefec- 
ture for  constructing  a  railway  between  Nagasaki  and  Sasebo, 
connecting  with  the  Kyushu  Railway  at  Sogi.  This  petition 
also  laid  stress  upon  the  naval  port  of  Sasebo  and  gave  it  as 
the  principal  object  for  their  project.  After  the  filing  of  this 
)etition,  the  government  saw  the  advisability  of  uniting  the 
two  railway  enterprises  and  so  notified  the  governors  of  the 
interested  prefectures.  Thereupon  the  two  schemes  were 
united  into  one  and  came  under  the  cooperation  of  the  people 
of  the  four  prefectures,  of  Fukuoka,  Saga,  Kumamoto  and 
Nagasaki.  The  railway  construction  was  started,  but  it  had 
hardly  made  any  progress  when  the  government,  enforcing 
the  Railway  Law,^  ordered  part  of  the  Kyushu  Railway  line, 
which  begins  at  Saga  and  ends  at  Sasebo  and  Nagasaki,  set 
apart  for  the  government  construction  (ist  Period),  to  be 
completed  in  twelve  years  after  starting  the  work.  Later, 
however,  the  work  again  came  to  be  conducted  by  the  railway 
company,  and  rapid  progress  was  made  after  the  war  with 
China,  the  line  from  Sogi  to  Sasebo  being  finished  in  31  Meiji 
(1898).  Soon  the  line  to  Nagasaki  (from  Sogi)  was  also 
opened,  and  then  railway  facilities  from  Sasebo  as  a  center 
to  Moji,  Kumamoto  and  Nagasaki  were  at  last  obtained,  a 
remarkable  development  of  communication.  Thus  the  Sasebo 
Line  of  the  Kyushu  Railway  owes  its  origin  and  speedy  com- 
pletion to  the  naval  port  of  Sasebo,  the  existence  of  which  gave 
rise  to  strong  military  and  economic  reasons  for  this  railway 
construction.  In  other  words,  the  naval  station  of  Sasebo  and 
especially  its  essential  part,  the  arsenal,  have  had  a  very  large 
influence  on  the  land  communication  of  that  place  and  its 
neighboring  localities. 

Maizuru  and  Its  Connections 

The  government  decided  to  start  construction  of  railways 
from  Kyoto,  and  Himeji  in  Hyogo  Prefecture,  or  Tsuchiyama, 

1  Law  No.  4,  issued  in  June,  25  Meiji  (1892). 


EFFECTS   ON    COMMUNICATION  229 

to  Maizuru,  under  the  Railway  Act,^  making  either  the  line  from 
Kyoto  or  from  Tsuchiyama  the  first  division;  but  it  was  stipu- 
lated that,  if  any  parties  desired  to  organize  a  company  for  con- 
structing any  such  railway  not  yet  under  construction,  they 
should  be  allowed  to  do  so  by  the  sanction  of  the  Diet.  When 
the  Sino-Japanese  War  broke  out  and  the  government  for  pecu- 
niary reasons  was  unable  to  start  such  work  promptly,  in  28 
Meiji  (1895),  after  the  same  war,  the  establishment  of  the  Maiz- 
uru Naval  Station  in  the  program  of  the  second  extension  of 
Japanese  naval  power  was  decided  upon  in  the  Diet,  and  in  the 
following  year,  in  the  month  of  May,  the  Naval  Special  Con- 
struction Branch  was  set  up  at  Maizuru.  And  at  just  this 
time,  from  about  the  end  of  28  to  29  Meiji  (1895  to  1896),  as 
an  effect  of  the  Sino-Japanese  War,  all  enterprising  persons 
were  eager  to  start  some  kind  of  undertaking.  So  these  par- 
ties, seeing  the  future  prospects  of  starting  a  government  rail- 
way to  Maizuru  before  long  and  of  the  economical  develop- 
ment of  the  neighborhood  of  the  same  port,  decided  to  con- 
struct a  railway  to  Maizuru.  One  party  applied  for  the 
construction  between  Kyoto  and  Sonobe,  a  part  of  the  line 
from  Kyoto  to  Maizuru,  organizing  the  Kyoto  Railway  Co., 
and  another  party,  the  Hankaku  Railway  Co.,  to  construct  a 
railway  between  Kanzaki  and  Fukuchiyama,  a  part  of  the  line 
from  Osaka  to  Maizuru  passing  through  Hyogo  Prefecture. 
These  companies  were  licensed,  and  the  former  was  organized 
in  November,  28  Meiji  (1895)  and  the  latter  in  September,  29 
Meiji  (1896)  and  bpth  companies  completed  construction  by 
February,  30  Meiji  (1897)  and  started  to  run,  but  as  the  rail- 
way for  both  companies  did  not  pay  and  they  were  in  very 
difficult  circumstances,  it  was  out  of  the  question  to  extend  the 
line  to  Maizuru.  At  the  same  time  the  extension  was  pro- 
jected by  the  government  for  the  first  period,  so  in  35  Meiji 
(1902)  the  government  started  to  construct  a  new  railway  be- 
tween Fukuchiyama  and  Shin- Maizuru  (which  is  a  new  town 
coming  into  existence  as  a  result  of  the  establishment  of  the 
naval  station),  where  the  naval  arsenal  works  are  located,  a 

^Law  No.  5,  issued  in  June,  25  Meiji  (1892). 


230  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

distance  of  twenty-four  miles  and  eight  chains.  The  work 
was  especially  hastened  during  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  and 
was  completed  in  October,  37  Meiji  (1904),  and  the  road 
leased  to  the  Hankaku  Railway  Co.  on  November  3  of  the 
same  year,  and  thus  the  railway  was  run  to  Maizuru  by  the 
company.  In  40  Meiji  (1907),  on  August  i,  both  the  Han- 
kaku and  the  Kyoto  Railway  Companies  were  bought  by  the 
government,  and  soon  after  the  line  from  Kyoto  to  Shin- 
Maizuru  was  completed  by  the  connection  of  a  newly-extended 
line  with  the  old  one  (connecting  Fukuchiyama  and  Maizuru) 
at  Ayabe.  The  completion  of  this  railway,  at  least  its  rapid 
completion,  also  owes  its  development  mainly  to  the  military 
as  well  as  economic  condition  with  regard  to  the  Maizuru 
Naval  Port  and  the  Naval  Arsenal  there,  causing  increase  of 
population,  especially  of  officials  and  workmen  taking  charge 
in  the  arsenal,  the  gathering  of  industrial  goods  needed  by  the 
arsenal  from  all  quarters,  the  development  of  means  of  convey- 
ance and  the  prosperity  of  the  newly  erected  towns,  Shin- 
Maizuru  and  Amarube. 

Water  Carriage 

The  goods  required  for  the  factories  of  the  army  and  the 
navy  are  mostly  large,  heavy  and  bulky,  and  are  numerous  in 
quantity.  The  establishment  of  these  factories  has  therefore 
caused  an  increase  of  the  number  of  ship  lines  and  voyages 
both  at  home  and  abroad.  This  is  especially  true  of  ocean 
lines.  The  European,  North  American  and  Australian  lines, 
for  instance,  have  ever  since  the  beginning  of  Meiji  been  kept 
busy  importing  the  large  amount  of  goods  needed  in  military 
industry,  and  as  a  result  shipping  and  communication  over 
those  routes  have  been  developed,  perhaps  in  no  small  degree. 
As  the  shipping  of  the  goods  of  military  industry  is  not  carried 
on  by  any  special  steamship  service,  it  is  not  easy  to  point  out 
all  of  the  individual  cases  of  such  development.  This  diffi- 
culty is  met  not  only  with  regard  to  the  shipping  over  foreign 
lines,  but  also  in  the  case  of  domestic  shipping  where  a  line  has 
so  many  relations  that  it  does  not  admit  of  a  trip  being  kept 


EFFECTS   ON   COMMUNICATION  23 1 

for  the  shipping  of  military  goods  separately  from  others. 
Therefore,  in  examining  the  influence  which  military  industry 
has  had  upon  water  carriage,  we  shall  be  satisfied  with  stating 
only  such  facts  as  are  easily  distinguishable  from  general  ship- 
ping, as  was  the  case  with  land  carriage  in  the  previous  section. 

Among  army  industries,  the  wool  and  the  olein  oil  used  in 
the  Senju  Woolen  Cloth  Factory  are  needed  in  great  quantitiesV 
and  were  mostly  imported  from  Australia.  It  is  this  that 
opened  a  line  to  that  country  some  twenty  or  thirty  years  ago 
when  no  Japanese  ship  had  yet  traversed  those  waters.  The 
progress  now  seen  of  the  shipping  and  communication  betweei 
the  two  countries  is  largely  attributable  to  the  woolen  industl 
of  the  Senju  factory.  ^ 

Besides,  the  transportation  of  the  great  variety  of  materials 
for  munition  manufacture  in  the  Tokyo  and  Osaka  Arsenals 
which  was  purchased  in  the  past  from  various  countries  (Eng- 
land, the  United  States,  Germany,  France,  Holland  and 
others)  in  enormous  quantities  every  year,  caused  ships  to  ply 
between  those  countries  and  Yokohama,  Kobe  and  Nagasaki, 
and  thus  served,  probably  as  much  as  the  Senju  Woolen  Cloth 
Factory  served  for  the  Australian  line,  to  develop  the  com- 
munication between  Japan  and  those  Western  countries. 

The  two  cases  above  refer  to  the  foreign  lines  of  water 
carriage.  The  domestic  lines  at  the  same  time  owe  much  of 
their  development  to  the  army  industries.  Heavy  and  bulky 
home-produced  materials,  such  as  metals,  ores,  timber,  provi- 
sions, coal,  hides,  leather,  fur,  cotton  cloth,  hemp  and  hemp 
cloth  are  carried  in  great  abundance  to  the  places  where  the 
factories  are  located,  or  goods  manufactured  thereof  are  dis- 
tributed to  garrisons  from  there.  It  helped  to  develop  water 
carriage  in  many  cases  between  the  places  producing  those  raw 
materials  and  the  places  where  the  army  factories  are,  between 
the  sites  of  the  various  factories  themselves,  or  between  the 
sites  of  the  factories  and  the  places  where  garrisons  are  located. 
And  it  helped  the  progress  of  shipping  between  the  ports  or 
harbors  near  those  places.  This  is  explained  by  the  relation 
the  port  of  Yokohama  has  with  the  Tokyo  Arsenal,  or  the  ports 


232  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

of  Osaka  and  Kobe  with  the  Osaka  Arsenal.  The  Formosan, 
Korean  and  Kantoshu  steamship  Hnes  are  also  largely  Indebted 
for  their  development  to  the  shipping  of  the  Industrial  goods  of 
the  army. 

The  naval  Industries  are  not  behind  the  army  Industries  In  the 
importation  of  foreign  articles.  No  small  number  of  foreign 
and  Japanese  ships  have  In  the  past  found  service  In  bring- 
ing naval  goods  here  from  foreign  countries.  To  these  impor- 
tations of  military  Industrial  goods  Is  largely  due  the  establish- 
ment and  development  of  the  new  foreign  lines  In  the  early 
years  of  Meiji.  Especially  is  It  indebted  to  the  bringing  over 
of  the  war  vessels  built  in  foreign  countries  and  Importation  of 
machinery,  tools,  materials,  etc.,  bought  in  connection  with  the 
building  and  repairing  of  warships.  Such  Importation  of  for- 
eign materials  is  still  made,  and  Is  benefiting  Japan's  shipping 
Interest  not  a  little. 

The  Influence  exerted  upon  the  domestic  shipping  by  the 
naval  industries  can  be  shown  more  precisely  than  In  the  case 
of  the  army  industries.  The  following  states  this  briefly  for 
each  of  the  different  naval  ports  and  ports  concerned : 

Port  of  Yokosuka. — Yokosuka.  situated  as  It  is  on  the  Bay 
of  Tokyo  and  with  Its  fishing  population,  had  from  olden  times 
its  fishing  boats  plying  between  it  and  Edo  (formerly  Tokyo). 
It  also  early  entered  into  communication  by  water  with  several 
places  on  the  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Miura  and  with  Awa 
and  Kazusa  Provinces  by  the  passage  of  fishing  boats  and 
fuel-carrying  vessels.  Beyond  this,  however,  there  were  no 
vessels  of  any  kind  of  passenger  or  general  freight  services, 
regular  or  Irregular,  existing  in  connection  with  this  place;  a 
thing  quite  natural  with  the  then  poor  hamlets  of  thin  popula- 
tion where  farming  and  fishing  were  the  principal  living  and  al- 
most no  commerce  or  industry  existed.  On  the  contrary,  the 
Port  of  Uraga,  which  was  a  neighbor  of  Yokosuka,  was  in 
those  days  considered  a  good  harborage  on  the  Pacific,  and  It 
was  customary  for  many  of  the  ships  en  route  to  and  from  Edo 
to  call  there  for  water  and  fuel  or  to  take  refuge  there  from  the 
heavy  seas;  In  addition  to  this,  the  place  was  flourishing  with 


EFFECTS   ON   COMMUNICATION  233 

commerce,  being  one  of  the  accepted  centers  in  Tokaido  (a 
section  along  the  eastern  coast  of  Japan,  consisting  of  several 
provinces),  and  was  always  thronged  by  merchant  vessels, 
which  advanced  its  shipping  superiority.  There  was  a  regular 
service  of  Japanese  boats  running  once  a  day  between  there 
and  Edo,  which  was  largely  patronized  by  the  people  living 
near  Yokosuka.  However,  dawn  came  upon  that  fishing  vil- 
lage when  during  the  Keio  Era  (i  865-1 867)  the  Shogunate 
established  iron  works  there,  and  the  place  began  to  be  alive 
with  the  coming  and  going  of  the  officers  and  workmen  and 
their  families. 

After  the  Restoration  of  Meiji,  there  took  place  in  Yoko- 
suka, one  after  another,  an  enlargement  of  the  iron  works,  the 
change  of  the  same  iron  works  into  the  Yokosuka  Dockyard, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  naval  station,  and  with  it  the 
place,  which  was  now  developing  into  a  town,  enjoyed  re- 
markable expansion,  and  its  means  of  water  communication 
became  gradually  perfected.  The  development  of  the  water 
communication  of  Yokosuka  during  those  times  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows:  When  in  i  Keio  (1865)  the  Tokugawa 
Government  established  iron  works  in  Yokosuka  and  a  work- 
shop in  Yokohama,  the  iron  works  commenced  navigation 
by  a  small  steamer  three  times  a  week  between  Yokosuka  and 
Yokohama,  and  this  was  the  pioneer  in  the  regular  steamship 
service  in  Japan.  This  ship  was  a  boat  chartered  from  the 
government  and  allowed  none  but  officers  of  the  iron  works 
and  their  attendants  to  go  on  board.  Since  i  Meiji  (1868), 
however,  anyone  has  been  permitted  to  do  so.  This  service 
was,  in  8  Meiji  (1875),  suspended  for  a  time,  but  in  13  Meiji 
(1880)  four  small  ships  were  loaned  to  the  people  by  the  Yoko- 
suka Dockyard,  and  were  made  to  carry  on  a  private  service, 
which  was  doubtless  the  first  steamship  service  at  Yokosuka 
ever  planned  by  private  individuals.  The  landing  place  for 
those  steamers,  owing  to  the  strict  limitations  on  the  coming 
and  going  of  ships  to  and  from  the  naval  port  because  of  the 
necessity  of  keeping  military  secrets,  was  compelled  to  change 
its  location  in  the  i8th  year  of  Meiji  (1885),  and  at  the  same 


234  MILITARY    INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

time  the  manager  of  the  steamship  service  returned  the  ves- 
sels loaned  by  the  governm.ent  and  continued  his  service  with 
two  newly-built  ships  of  his  own.  When  in  June,  22  Meiji 
(1889)  the  Yokosuka  Branch  of  the  Tokaido  Railway  Line 
was  opened,  the  passengers  by  steamer  so  diminished  that  it 
was  necessary  to  discontinue  that  steamship  service  for  a  time 
and  to  use  ships  of  Japanese  type  in  their  place. 

In  the  next  year  the  steamship  service  was  revived  again, 
and  in  the  same  year  a  new  rival  steamship  service  was  begun 
on  the  same  line,  and  this  competition  was  continued  until  the 
Sino-Japanese  War ;  but  since  that  war  navigation  on  this  line 
has  been  monopolized  by  the  Teikimaru  Steamship  Company. 
This  voyage  was  a  direct  one,  running  fourteen  miles  from 
Yokohama  to  Yokosuka,  calling  at  no  port  on  the  way.  Be- 
sides this,  there  are  the  Tokyo  Line,  the  Awa  Line,  the  Uraga 
Line,  the  Misaki  Line,  etc.,  all  of  which  were,  like  the  Yoko- 
suka Line,  newly  opened  after  the  naval  factory  had  been 
erected  at  Yokosuka,  and  took  similar  courses  as  the  Yokosuka 
Line  in  their  commencement  as  well  as  development.  Among 
them  the  line  to  Tokyo  was  navigated  by  the  regular  liners  of 
the  Tokyo  Bay  Steamship  Company  and  the  Miura  Cooper- 
ative Steamship  Company;  the  line  to  Tateyama  in  Awa  Prov- 
ince, by  the  Tokyo  Bay  Steamship  Company;  the  line  to 
Uraga,  by  the  same  company  and  the  Miura  Cooperative 
Steamship  Company ;  the  line  to  Misaki,  by  the  Miura  Cooper- 
ative Steamship  Company.  Although  there  were  many 
changes  during  the  history  of  these  services  from  their  starting 
to  the  present,  all  the  services  have  one  common  feature  in  the 
fact  that  their  development  to  the  present  prosperity  is  a  fruit 
of  the  naval  industry  planted  in  Yokosuka.  And  on  the  other 
hand,  the  appropriation  of  the  coast  of  the  port  to  the  naval 
use,  as  a  result  of  the  expansion  of  the  naval  station,  and  the 
increasing  strictness  of  the  restriction  against  ships  entering 
or  leaving  the  port,  although  it  caused  some  inconvenience  in 
the  use  of  harbors,  etc.,  never  prevented  the  progress  of  navi- 
gation. In  addition  to  this,  to  be  sure,  the  busy  running  of 
privately-owned  vessels  shipping  cargo  relating  to  the  naval 
industry  benefited  navigation  a  great  deal. 


EFFECTS    ON    COMMUNICATION  235 

Port  of  Kure. — The  predecessors  of  the  city  of  Kure  were 
Shoyamada,  Washo  and  MIyabara  villages,  including  partly 
farmers  and  partly  fishermen,  and  facing  the  Inland  Sea. 
They  were  merely  common  farming  and  fishing  villages,  hav- 
ing neither  historic  site  nor  natural  beauty  of  landscape  worthy 
of  consideration,  especially  no  remarkable  commerce  or  in- 
dustry; therefore  in  those  days  before  the  establishment  of  the 
naval  station  navigation  between  several  places  on  the  coast  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  villages,  especially  the  communication  with 
the  city  of  Hiroshima,  was  entirely  done  with  fishing  boats. 
Two  or  three  years  before  the  establishment  of  the  naval  sta- 
tion in  22  Meiji  (1889),  ^  great  number  of  laborers,  merchants 
and  manufacturers  assembled,  and  construction  materials, 
implements,  instruments  and  other  goods  used  in  the  naval 
station  were  brought  there  chiefly  by  sea;  and  as  in  those 
days  the  Sanyo  Railway  Line  had  not  yet  been  opened,  a 
number  of  ships  always  assembled  at  the  port.  The  ships 
were  running  from  Yokohama,  Yokosuka,  Osaka,  Kobe,. 
Onomichi,  Hiroshima,  Shimonoseki  and  ports  in  Sanyodo, 
Shikoku,  Kyushu,  etc.,  to  Kure,  regularly  or  irregularly,  while 
sometimes  foreign  ships  entered  the  port,  all  of  which  not  only 
facilitated  the  transportation  to  Kure,  but  greatly  benefited 
the  communication  to  the  ports  lying  on  every  steamship  line. 
But  these  were  only  temporary  affairs.  The  goods  trans- 
ported there  and  laborers  diminished  as  the  construction  of 
the  naval  station  was  nearing  completion.  And  especially 
after  the  opening  of  the  naval  station  in  22  Meiji  (1889),  owing 
to  the  limitation  on  ships  going  and  coming,  and  to  the  grow- 
ing tendency  among  the  merchants,  manufacturers  and 
laborers  to  reside  there  permanently,  which  decreased  the 
number  of  those  who  left  there,  as  well  as  owing  to  the  gradual 
extension  of  the  Sanyo  Railway  Line,  the  number  of  the  steam- 
ship lines  and  the  times  of  navigation,  the  number  of  ships 
entering  and  leaving  the  port  were  decreased.  But  the  muni- 
tions needed  by  the  naval  arsenal  in  those  days  were  very 
numerous,  while  on  the  other  hand,  as  a  result  of  the  expansion 
of  the  navy,  the  scale  of  the  arsenal  was  enlarged  and  the  town 
of  Kure  developed  in  a  remarkable  manner,  and  after  all  the 


236  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC  EFFECTS 

result  was  that  the  ships  in  Kure  were  not  much  lessened. 
Especially,  for  instance,  between  Ujina  (near  Hiroshima)  and 
Kure  there  was  a  regular  service,  several  times  a  day;  and 
other  regular  services  were  opened  to  several  ports  in  the 
Province  of  Aki  and  Bizen  and  in  Shikoku ;  and  in  addition  to 
these,  Kure  became  a  regular  port  of  call  for  ships  of  the  In- 
land Sea  service  starting  from  Osaka  and  Kobe ;  in  short,  the 
water-carriage  service  was  very  convenient.  Meanwhile,  in 
27  Meiji  (1894),  the  Sanyo  Railway  Line  was  extended  to 
Hiroshima,  and  some  years  after  that  it  was  opened  to  Shimon- 
oseki;  in  37  Meiji  (1904),  the  railway  from  Hiroshima  to  Kure 
was  completed,  all  of  which  resulted  in  a  large  decrease  of 
passengers  and  freight  by  sea.  Moreover,  when,  afterwards, 
as  a  result  of  the  enlargement  of  the  naval  port  carried  out 
since  January,  43  Meiji  (1910),  the  Port  of  Kawaraishi,  the 
only  port  in  Kure,  was  prohibited  from  allowing  free  entrance 
of  general  ships  excepting  steamers  of  less  than  ten  registered 
tons  and  Japanese  ships  of  less  than  100  koku,  the  water- 
carriage  service  of  Kure  was  dealt  such  a  heavy  blow  that  at 
the  present  time  there  is  no  regular  steamship  line  to  that 
port.  Nowadays  the  port  of  Yoshiura,  near  Kure,  as  it  has 
an  available  railway,  is  used  in  place  of  Kure,  and  the  Ujina 
Line,  Shikoku  Line,  Inland  Sea  Line  and  voyages  to  the  neigh- 
boring islands  are  continuing  their  regular  services. 

Port  of  Sasebo. — The  Port  of  Sasebo  before  the  establish- 
ment of  the  naval  station  was  a  mere  fishing  hamlet.  It  had 
no  means  of  water  carriage  except  the  fishing  boats  for  trans- 
porting game  to  seaside  markets  nearby,  nor  was  there  any 
port  of  call  by  any  regular  steamship  running  along  the  coast 
of  Kyushu.  When  it  was  made  a  naval  station  in  19  Meiji 
(1886),  many  laborers,  merchants  and  manufacturers  gathered 
there  from  all  quarters,  while  goods  needed  by  the  military 
authorities  and  the  people  in  general  were  shipped  there  in 
great  abundance.  Moreover,  as  in  those  days  the  Kyushu 
Railway  Line  was  not  yet  opened  and  transportation  was  made 
by  sea,  there  was  a  large  number  of  newly  opened  lines  to  the 
same  port  and  a  great  number  of  ships  was  to  be  found  there, 


EFFECTS   ON   COMMUNICATION  237 

as  was  stated  about  the  Port  of  Kure.  And  similarly  to 
Kure,  the  establishment  of  the  Sasebo  Naval  Station  in  22 
Meiji  (1889),  and  the  railway  connecting  Sogi  with  Sasebo^ 
which  was  completed  immediately  after  the  opening  of  the 
railway  between  Moji  and  Sogi  on  the  K^iishu  Line  in  31 
Meiji  (1898),  had  an  effect  upon  the  traffic  between  Sasebo 
and  other  ports ;  and  the  port  was  under  the  restrictions  of  the 
Law  of  Protection  of  Military  Secrets,  as  it  was  a  naval  port  as 
well  as  in  a  strategic  zone.  But  the  tract  of  land  for  the  naval 
station  of  Sasebo  being  different  from  that  of  Kure,  Sasebo  was 
not  under  as  much  restriction  as  Kure,  and  there  were  and  are 
many  ships  entering  and  leaving.  According  to  the  statistics 
for  recent  years  there  were  more  than  3,000  steamers,  more 
than  1,000  European  sailors  and  about  3,000  Japanese  ships, 
all  of  which  shows  what  fine  progress  the  port  made. 

Port  of  Maizuru. — The  Port  of  Maizuru,  known  as  a  good 
port  in  Tango  Province,,  and  near  the  Port  of  Miyazu,  which, 
enclosing  Amano-Hashidate,  one  of  the  three  most  beautiful 
spots  in  Japan,  has  enchanting  views,  was  not  neglected  and 
was  called  at  by  almost  all  the  ships  that  voyaged  through  the 
Japan  Sea.  Trade  there  was  always  as  prosperous  as  at 
Miyazu,  so  that  it  was  from  olden  times  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  prominent  commercial  districts  in  Sanindo,  all  of  which 
led  the  port  to  a  marked  advancement  in  water  carriage.  It 
enjoyed  convenient  means  of  communication,  having  many 
lines,  not  only  to  famous  ports  in  the  Japan  Sea,  but  to 
several  of  those  as  remote  as  in  Kyushu,  coasts  of  the  Inland 
Sea  and  the  neighborhood  of  Osaka.  Although  it  must,  there- 
fore, be  certain  that,  during  the  period  in  which  arrangements 
for  the  naval  station  were  made,  that  is  to  say,  from  the  setting 
up  there  of  the  Temporary  Naval  Branch  in  Architecture  for 
the  establishment  of  the  naval  station  in  29  Meiji  (1896)  to  the 
opening  in  34  Meiji  (1901),  as  well  as  since  then  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  the  naval  industry  which  multiplied  both  the  travel 
of  passengers  and  the  traffic  of  cargoes  caused  a  sudden  in- 
crease of  ships  in  number,  yet  there  was  scarcely  a  regular  ship 
line  newly  opened,  and  in  comparison  with  other  naval  ports 


238  MILITARY   industries:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

the  observable  effects  of  the  military  industry  upon  this  port 
were  very  small. 

Port  of  Tokuyama. — In  the  Port  of  Tokuyama,  Yamaguchi 
Prefecture,  where  the  Naval  Briquette  Manufactory  is  located, 
since  the  establishment  of  the  same  manufactory  in  37  Meiji 
(1904),  there  have  been  always  at  anchor  a  number  of  steamers 
and  Japanese  ships  gathering  Kyushu  coal  for  making  bri- 
quette from  Moji  and  Wakamatsu,  and  distributing  briquette 
to  all  naval  ports.  Although  the  scale  of  the  same  factory  is 
smaller  than  that  of  any  other  military  factory,  it  needs  and 
produces  such  heavy  substances  as  coal  and  briquette,  natu- 
rally causing  a  great  need  of  a  number  of  ships  as  means  of 
transport. 

Port  of  Wakamatsu. — The  iron  works  located  in  Yawata 
town,  Fukuoka  Prefecture,  has  had  the  closest  connection 
with  the  Japanese  military  industry  since  its  starting,  and 
now  is  supplying  60  per  cent  of  its  manufactures  to  military 
factories.     Here  will  be  given,  therefore,  a  short  description. 

Since  the  factory  was  set  up  in  34  Meiji  (1901),  iron  ore  and 
pig  iron  for  raw  material  and  coal  for  fuel  were  annually  con- 
sumed there  in  great  abundance.  Iron  ore  and  pig  iron  used 
in  the  same  factory  for  raw  materials  during  2  Taisho  (191 3), 
excepting  what  was  produced  from  Japan  herself,  amounted  to 
200,000  tons  of  Chinese  ore,  about  150,000  tons  of  Korean  ore 
and  about  130,000  tons  of  pig  iron  produced  in  foreign  coun- 
tries except  China,  while  about  80,000  tons  of  coal  produced  in 
Kaiping,  China,  besides  Japanese  coal  was  consumed  here. 
For  bringing  Chinese  iron  ore,  between  the  Port  of  Yawata 
(generally  together  with  the  original  Port  of  Wakamatsu 
called  "the  Port  of  Wakamatsu,"  because  both  are  situated  in 
the  same  bay)  and  Shihhuiyao,  China  (near  Daiya,  and  there- 
fore generally  called  also  Daiya) ,  a  new  steamship  service  was 
opened,  and  during  eight  months  yearly,  from  April  to  Novem- 
ber, about  one  hundred  voyages  are  made  with  six  or  seven 
steamers  of  the  class  of  3,000  tons;  while  for  bringing  Korean 
iron  ore  there  was  opened  from  the  coast  of  the  Daidoko 
River  in  the  vicinity  of  iron  producing  places,  Inzoku,  Sainei 


EFFECTS   ON   COMMUNICATION  239 

and  Angaku  to  the  Port  of  Wakamatsu,  a  service  on  which 
three  or  four  steamers  of  the  class  from  1,500  to  2,000  tons  are 
running  every  year  except  during  the  period  of  the  freezing  of 
the  same  river,  that  is  to  say,  for  eight  months,  from  April 
to  November,  and  on  the  other  hand,  on  a  new  line  between 
Shinkoto  and  the  Port  of  Wakamatsu  are  running  three  or 
four  steamers  of  the  class  of  3,000  tons  in  the  service  of  bring- 
ing coal  produced  from  Kaiping,  China. 

The  principal  consumers  of  the  manufactured  iron  are  the 
military  arsenals  of  Tokyo  and  Osaka,  and  the  Tokyo  Naval 
Arsenal  as  well  as  the  other  naval  arsenals,  etc.  They  are 
followed  by  the  factories  which  are  connected  with  the  Mit- 
subishi Dockyard  at  Nagasaki,  the  Kawasaki  Dockyard  at 
Kobe,  factories  connected  with  the  military  industry,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Tokyo,  Yokohama,  Osaka  and  Kobe,  etc. 
Of  course,  on  the  lines  between  these  ports,  there  is  a  continual 
service  of  steamers ;  especially  between  those  ports  lying  on  the 
Inland  Sea  Line,  as  Osaka,  Kure,  Kobe,  Tokuyama  (from 
where  pitch,  a  by-product  of  the  Iron  Works,  is  transported  to 
the  Tokuyama  Briquette  Manufactory),  etc.,  are  running  not 
a  few  tugboats. 

The  service  on  the  above-mentioned  lines  is  performed  by 
steamers  of  the  Japan  Mail  Steamship  Company  and  of  some 
individuals.  Also  two  steamers  owned  by  the  same  factory 
are  in  service  and  make  several  voyages  for  the  factory.  Be- 
sides, steamers  on  foreign  lines  (except  the  China  line)  bring- 
ing foreign  pig  iron  and  other  foreign  materials  needed  in  the 
same  factory  visit  the  port  every  month. 

Port  of  Muroran. — About  the  Nippon  Steel  Manufactory 
at  Muroran,  Hokkaido,  as  it  is  the  only  private  concern  having 
the  special  service  of  making  arms,  a  short  statement  will  be 
made. 

The  steamship  line  between  Muroran  where  the  Nippon 
Steel  Manufactory  is  located  and  Aomori  was,  up  to  40  Meiji 
(1907),  carried  on  by  regular  steamers  of  the  Japan  Mail 
Steamship  Company,  and  irregular  steamers  of  the  Kuribay- 
ashi  and  the  Funkawan  Steamship  Company.     In  the  same 


240  MILITARY   industries:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

year,  the  Nippon  Steel  Manufactory  was  established,  and 
since  then  passengers  and  cargoes  have  gradually  increased, 
which  has  naturally  resulted  in  the  increase  of  the  number  of 
voyages  and  has  greatly  benefited  communication  between 
Honshu  (Main  Island)  and  Hokkaido. 

For  the  purpose  of  transporting  the  raw  materials  used  and 
the  goods  manufactured  in  the  steel  manufactory,  a  steamship 
line  of  four  steamers  from  500  to  1,000  tons,  owned  by  private 
individuals  and  hired  for  transport  by  contract  between  them 
and  the  steel  manufactory,  has  been  opened,  running  between 
Muroran  and  Yokohama,  Yokosuka,  Osaka,  Kobe,  Kure, 
Maizuru,  Sasebo,  Nagasaki,  etc.,  calling  at  these  ports  twice  a 
month. 

There  are  two  foreign  steamship  lines,  one  of  them  served 
by  the  Japan  Mail  Steamship  Company  via  Yokohama,  and 
the  other  direct  from  foreign  countries.  The  times  of  voyage 
are  usually  twice  a  month  in  the  former  case,  and  irregular  in 
the  latter. 

It  is  to  be  judged  from  the  outline  of  the  development  of 

'navigation  as  stated  above  that  the  military  industry  not  only 

has  affected  navigation  in  Japan  so  much  as  to  be  worthy  of 

special  mention  in  the  history  of  transportation  during  the  era 

of  Meiji,  but  is  still  affecting  navigation. 


CHAPTER  VII 
SOCIAL  EFFECTS 

i\s  has  already  been  seen,  the  military  and  navy  industries, 
by  greatly  affecting  all  industries  within  the  country,  hold  an 
important  relation  to  the  national  economy.  It  is  easily  con- 
ceivable, therefore,  that  it  may  have  important  effects  upon 
the  national  life,  i.  e,,  upon  production,  consumption,  labor, 
prices,  income,  population,  public  peace,  sanitation,  etc.  It  is 
a  very  important  matter  from  the  standpoint  of  economic  in- 
vestigation of  the  military  and  naval  industries  exactly  to 
examine  and  study  what  and  to  what  extent  is  the  influence 
of  the  same  upon  the  problems  of  life  at  the  present  time. 
However,  it  is  very  hard  to  give  a  correct  and  impartial 
estimate  by  actual  observation  of  those  effects  universally  and 
exactly,  because  not  only  has  the  military  and  naval  industry' 
an  extensive  relation  to  many  things,  but  there  are  a  number  of 
complicated  questions  relating  thereto.  Of  course,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  examine  all  those  relations  in  any  private  investiga- 
tion, and  even  public  investigations  relating  to  the  statistics 
are  so  deficient  that  it  leads  the  writer  nearly  to  despair. 
And  if  we,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  merely  try  local  observa- 
tions, we  can  not  form  any  analogy  of  the  whole,  but  can  be 
easily  carried  into  error.  This  is  the  reason  why  in  this  work 
every  factory  in  every  place  was  adopted  as  the  object  of 
study.  The  result  of  the  investigation  is  that  the  influences  of 
the  military  and  naval  industries  upon  society,  though  there 
are  some  special  points  in  each  place,  are  in  general  not  so  dif- 
ferent but  have  many  common  points,  the  same  or  similar, 
which  therefore  are  described  in  general  in  the  following  sec- 
tions (under  the  headings  of  Revenue,  Labor,  Relief  Service, 
Population,  and  Public  Peace  and  Sanitation),  while  only 
those  which  it  is  impossible  to  put  together  are  mentioned 
separately. 

17  241 


242  military  industries:  economic  effects 

Revenue 

We  can  say  decidedly  that  the  military  and  naval  industries 
have  a  certain  effect  upon  the  income  of  the  people  at  large. 
How  far  its  effect  extends  is  a  question,  and  if  we  trace  all  re- 
sults, even  the  indirect  and  remote  ones,  there  is  no  visible 
limit.  Hence,  our  investigation  is  to  be  confined  to  such  per- 
sons as  are  directly  related  to  the  industry  itself  and  industrial 
localities;  officers  taking  service  in  the  factories,  workmen, 
merchants  in  the  employ  of  factories  and  the  owners  of  land  or 
houses  in  the  places  where  factories  are  located,  as  well  as  the 
merchants  and  manufacturers  in  the  same  places.  Among 
these,  the  income  of  the  officers,  as  fixed  by  the  organiza- 
tions, the  government,  and  the  ordinance  of  salary,  needs  no 
particular  statement.  Concerning  that  of  the  merchants  in 
the  employ  of  factories  and  others  except  the  workmen,  it  is 
very  difficult  to  make  a  statement  in  detail,  and  even  if  it 
were  possible  regarding  certain  ones  there  are  no  accurate 
figures  to  enable  us  to  infer  all  the  circumstances  of  income. 
It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that,  in  the  following  pages,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  outline  of  the  subject,  there  be  given  general  remarks 
on  the  income  of  workmen  employed  in  those  factories  only. 

The  wages  of  the  workmen  in  military  and  naval  factories 
vary,  for  several  reasons.  For  instance,  the  average  income 
of  a  hand  for  a  day  in  the  Tokyo  Arsenal  is  88  sen  (44  cents), 
Osaka  Arsenal  76  sen  (38  cents).  Military  Clothing  Depart- 
ment 60  sen  (30  cents).  Military  Provision  Department  78  sen 
(39  cents),  Senju  Woolen  Cloth  Factory  52  sen  (26  cents). 
Drawing  Section  of  the  Land  Survey  Department  71  sen  (35.5 
cents).  Railway  Material  Department  49  sen  (23.5  cents), 
Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal  82  sen  (41  cents),  Kure  Naval 
Arsenal  76  sen  (38  cents),  Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal  66  sen  (33 
cents),  Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal  66  sen  (33  cents),  Ryojun 
Dockyard  74  sen  (37  cents),  Naval  Arsenal  67  sen  (33.5  cents), 
Shimose  Powder  Mill  84  sen  (42  cents),  Repairing  Yard  of 
Ominato  Secondary  Naval  Station  61  sen  (30.5  cents).  Re- 
pairing Yard  of  Bako  Secondary  Naval  Station  60  sen  (30 
cents),  Briquette  Manufactory  63  sen  (31.5  cents). 

In  comparing  the  various  amounts  of  wages  in  these  factories 


SOCIAL  EFFECTS  243 

with  those  of  the  ordinary  workmen  living  in  the  place  where 
such  factories  are  located,  there  is  on  the  average  not  much 
difference  between  them,  although  in  the  case  of  a  certain  kind 
of  workmen  there  may  be  found  some  differences.  But  it  may 
be  said  that  the  income  of  ordinary  workmen  for  a  month 
is  less  than  that  of  those  engaged  in  a  military  or  naval  factory; 
for  the  latter,  who  seldom  rest  from  work  except  on  the 
holidays,  get  a  monthly  income  for  almost  a  whole  month, 
while  the  former,  who  work  less  days,  gain  a  smaller  amount  in 
a  month,  because  they  can  not  always  be  at  work,  on  account 
of  the  weather  or  the  condition  of  the  market.  The  workmen 
in  the  military  and  naval  factories  are  classified  into  two  kinds, 
the  contract  laborers  and  the  ordinary  laborers,  the  former 
being  in  service  for  a  fixed  term  by  contract  and  the  latter 
contracting  for  no  term  of  service.  Of  those,  the  contract 
laborer  is  better  situated  than  the  ordinary  laborer  by  receiv- 
ing an  allowance  of  a  reasonable  sum  after  the  expiration 
of  the  term.  Besides,  there  is  an  ordinance  regulating  the 
special  allowance  for  the  government  workmen  and  laborers, 
whereby  those  who  have  been  injured  or  have  become  sick  in 
the  public  service  are  cured,  or  may  receive  an  allowance  for 
retirement.  In  addition  to  these,  in  the  case  of  the  naval  fac- 
tories, there  is  the  Workmen's  Mutual  Relief  Association  organ- 
ized for  the  same  purpose.  All  these  favors  increase  the  in- 
come of  the  workmen  directly  or  indirectly  by  giving  extra  gain 
added  to  the  nominal  wages  and  benefit  the  military  and  naval 
workmen  more  than  those  in  service  in  any  private  factory. 

The  wage  of  the  female  hand,  who  is  employed  by  some  mili- 
tary or  naval  factories  in  no  small  numbers,  is  36  sen  (18  cents) 
per  day  on  an  average,  which  shows  an  unusually  good  gain  for 
a  woman  who  is  neither  well  educated  nor  specially  skilled. 
Moreover,  most  of  these  women  are  of  the  family  of  the  work- 
men and  so  they  are  enabled  by  the  increased  income  to 
cooperate  and  to  live  well  without  anxiety. 

In  short,  the  circumstances  of  the  workmen  in  the  military 
and  naval  industries,  owing  to  their  safe  situation,  continual 
service  and  various  special  favors,  are  a  little  better  than  those 
of  the  ordinary  ones. 


244 


MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 


To  show  the  income,  in  the  following  tables  are  given  the 
total  sums  of  wages  and  average  amount  per  capita  of  wages 
obtained  by  the  workmen  in  service  in  each  of  the  military  and 
naval  factories. 

Wages  of  Workmen  in  Military  Arsenals 


Factories 

Total 
Sum  of 
Wages 

Working 
Number  of 
Workmen 

Average  Daily  Wages 
per  Workman 

Number  of 
Workmen 

Male 

Female 

Tokyo  Arsenal 

Osaka  Arsenal 

Military  Clothing  De- 
partment   

Military       Provision 
Department 

Senju  Woolen  Cloth 
Factory    

Yen 
3,898,732 
2,435,749 

371,023 

69,800 

148,364 

909 
16,473 

4,880,335 
3,327,869 

865,553 
157,926 
361,176 

1,278 
33,608 

Yen 

0.88 

0.76 

0.60 

0.78 

0.52 

0.71 
0.49 

Yen 
0.41 
0.33 

0.32 

0.26 

0.30 

17,367 
10,480 

2,531 

575 

1,078 

Drawing    Section    of 
the    Land    Survey 
Department 

Railway  Material  De- 
partment   

4 
108 

Total    

6,941,050 

9,627,745 

0.80 

0.36 

32,143 

Wages  of  Workmen  in  Naval  Arsenals  ^ 


Factories 

Total 
Sum  of 
Wages 

Working 
Number  of 
Workmen 

Average 
Daily 

Wages 

of  a 

Hand 

Average 

Monthly 

Income 

of  a 

Hand 

Number 

of 
Workmen 

Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal . 

Kure  Naval  Arsenal 

Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal .  .  . 
Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal .  . 

Ryojun  Dockyard 

Shimose  Powder  Mill ...  . 
Naval   Arsenal 

Yen 

2,567,398 

6,114,865 

1,242,251 

987,225 

368,015 

78,824 

46,862 

39,740 

37,340 
45,912 

3,379,087 

8,139,672 

1,794,492 

1,331,861 

514,769 

83,807 

76,567 

60,991 

49.454 
82,579 

Yen 
0.76 

0.751 
0.692 
0.741 

0.715 

0.94 

0.612 

0.651 

0.755 
0.556 

Yen 
24.632 
22.907 
19.185 
19.662 
21.179 
25.071 
19.924 

18.297 

17.986 
18.880 

8,686 
22,245 
5,396 
4,184 
1,448 
262 
.    196 

Repairing  Yard  of  Ominaot 
Secondary  Naval  Station 

Repairing  Yard  of   Bako 
Secondary  N  aval  Station 

Briquette  Manufactory .  . 

181 

173 
212 

Total 

11,528,432 

15,513,279 

0.743 

22.351 

42,983 

1  First  financial  year  of  Taisho. 


social  effects  245 

Labor 

The  labor  question  will  be  treated  by  dividing  it  into  two 
parts — "employment"  and  "condition  of  life." 

Employment  by  the  military  as  well  as  the  naval  factory  is 
obtained  on  the  basis  of  fixed,  but,  speaking  generally,  lenient 
qualifications.  The  way  of  collecting  the  workmen  is  as  fol- 
lows: At  first,  an  invitation  is  given,  and  anyone  qualified  may 
apply;  then  the  applicants  are  subjected  to  a  physical  examina- 
tion, and  those  who  have  passed  it  are  divided  into  two  classes. 
One  class  consisting  of  a  certain  number  needed  by  the  factory 
and  recognized  to  be  competent  after  an  examination  of  their 
social  position,  are  adopted  as  apprentices,  and  after  training 
for  a  fixed  term  and  an  examination  are  promoted  to  the  posi- 
tion of  ordinary  workmen.  The  other  class  consists  of  a  cer- 
tain number  from  the  beginning  adopted  after  a  technical 
examination  as  proper  workmen  supplied  with  reasonable  daily 
wages.  The  policy  in  adopting  the  workmen  is  to  prefer  such 
as  live  in  the  same  place  or  in  the  vicinity  of  the  place  where 
the  factory  is  built,  or  in  the  family  of  a  workman  already  in 
employ,  and  so  there  are  but  few  "journeymen,"  who  are 
found  in  abundance  among  the  coal  miners  and  the  like. 
Although  such  a  method  as  stated  above  with  regard  to  selec- 
tion sometimes  makes  entrance  into  the  service  more  difficult, 
in  comparison  with  the  general  laborers,  the  military  and  naval 
factory,  by  its  great  receiving  capacity,  prevents  a  surplus  of 
general  labor  in  localities,  by  giving  them  suitable  work. 
Especially,  some  factories  employ  numerous  girls,  and  giving 
them  work  suitable  to  their  strength  and  health  enable  them 
to  escape  from  the  adversity  which  women  living  in  the  city 
and  having  small  jobs  or  no  work  meet,  with  a  result  which  is 
to  be  seen  in  any  factory  in  any  place. 

As  to  the  condition  of  life  of  workmen,  common  to  most  of 
the  places  having  military  and  naval  factories,  some  of  them 
live  in  the  town  where  the  factories  are  located,  and  some  of 
them  are  dwelling  in  the  villages  in  the  suburb  of  the  city. 
Those  who  reside  about  the  boundary  line  between  the  town 
and  the  suburb  do  not  pay  much  less  rent  compared  with  those 


246  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

dwelling  in  the  town  for  land  and  house,  etc.,  but  their  dis^ 
bursements  for  those  purposes  diminish  in  proportion  as  their 
residences  are  far  from  the  town.  Why  do  they  not  live  in  the 
suburb  where  rents  as  well  as  food  and  all  commodities  are  so 
much  cheaper  that  they  can  live  in  comfort,  but  deliberately 
prefer  the  town?  Perhaps  the  answer  may  be  that,  besides 
some  reasons  with  regard  to  their  family,  the  pressure  upon 
their  life  is  not  so  heavy  that  they  can  not  endure  the  city  life. 
According  to  statistics,  32  per  cent  of  all  the  workmen  are 
living  in  the  same  house  with  their  protector,  more  than  12  per 
cent  are  lodging,  and  those  who  have  their  own  houses  are 
only  a  little  over  55  per  cent,  which  shows  how  hard  it  is  to 
live  independently  by  means  of  the  income  from  labor.  How- 
ever, such  conditions  can  not  be  said  for  certain  to  be  due  to 
adversity,  if  we  note  the  fact  that  most  of  those  living  in 
another's  house  are  female  hands.  On  the  other  hand,  of  the 
more  than  76  per  cent  of  male  hands,  more  than  66  per  cent  are 
house  owners,  and  less  than  10  per  cent  are  living  in  another's 
house,  though  the  conditions  vary  according  to  age,  the  num- 
ber in  the  family,  etc.  Speaking  generally,  they  have  income 
enough  to  live  independently,  or  are  living  in  comfort  in  de- 
pendence upon  the  home  where  they  live;  in  short,  they  are 
scarcely  suffering  adversity  in  life.  Of  those  who  are  lodging 
and  number  more  than  23  per  cent  of  the  whole,  about  70  per 
cent  have  incomes  over  12  yen  ($6)  per  month,  while  about  30 
per  cent  have  incomes  under  12  yen.  And  as  most  of  them, 
young  and  unmarried,  may  be  supposed  to  need  8-8.50  yen 
($4-14.25)  monthly  for  the  charge  of  lodging,  those  who  have 
incomes  over  12  yen  ($6)  may  be  said  not  to  be  suffering  from 
poverty,  while  only  the  others  seem  to  be  poor.  As  to  the 
female  hands,  most  of  those  keeping  no  home  are  perhaps  liv- 
ing in  the  same  house  with  their  husbands,  fathers,  brothers, 
etc.,  and  so  must  not  be  suffering  much.  According  to  the 
latest  examinations,  even  the  female  hands  listed  as  "keeping 
house,"  who  have  an  income  of  only  8.70-15  yen  ($4.35- 
$7.50),  in  fact  rarely  rent  a  room,  so  that  the  expense  for  living 
is  not  much  more  than  that  of  those  who  are  lodging.     The 


SOCIAL  EFFECTS 


247 


female  hands  who  have  small  incomes  and  are  living  in  lodg- 
ing houses,  to  be  sure,  must  be  suffering  from  adversity, 
because  the  expense  for  lodging  is  from  6.50-7  yen  ($3.25- 
$3-50)  on  the  average. 

The  maximum,  minimum  and  average  of  the  amounts  of 
wages  for  a  month  gained  by  the  workmen  are  shown  as  follows: 


Classification  by  Age  of  Workmen 


Workmen 

Male 

Female 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Average 

Maximum 

Minimum 

Average 

Minor  hands 
Major  hands 

Yen 
II .400 
75.000 

Yen 

8.100 

9.600 

Yen 

8.750 

18.200 

Yen 
6.300 
15.100 

Yen 

4.800 

6.600 

Yen 
5.700 
II. 410 

Relief  Service  - 

In  the  following  pages  the  relief  service  of  both  the  army  and 
the  navy  is  described. 

The  Army 

As  the  relief  services  of  every  military  factory  are  not  very 
different  from  each  other,  the  services  of  only  the  two  arsenals, 
Tokyo  and  Osaka,  are  mentioned. 

For  injured  and  sick  workmen,  the  following  officers  are 
provided : 

Tokyo  Arsenal:  One  colonel  or  major,  eight  captains  or 
lieutenants,  and  seven  noncommissioned  officers  of  the  army 
medical  corps. 

Osaka  Arsenal:  One  colonel  or  major,  six  captains  or  lieu- 
tenants, and  five  noncommissioned  officers  of  the  army  medi- 
cal corps. 

These  officers  are  to  treat  the  injured  and  diseased  of  the 
officials  and  workmen  in  the  arsenals,  the  expenditure  for 
treatment  being  paid  out  of  the  working  expense,  if  the  injury 
or  disease  be  caused  by  any  official  business,  or  if  caused  in 
any  other  way,  consultation  and  prescription  only  are  given 


248 


MILITARY   industries:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 


and  the  charge  for  medicines  paid  by  themselves.     The  statis- 
tics for  the  former  are  as  follows: 

Medical  Treatment  of  Employees  of  Arsenals 


Number  of 

Persons  at 

End  of  Year 

Expense  for  Treatment 

Fiscal  Years 

Amount 
(Actual) 

Average 
Per  Capita 

42  Meiii   f IQOO) 

0.426 
0.405 
0.484 
0.460 

Yen 
10,916 

9,764 
12,389 
13,330 

Yen 
25,588 
24,058 
25,578 
28,937 

A%      "       (iQio) 

AA           "            (iQIl) .' 

I  Taisho  (1912) 

But  the  small  number  of  health  officers  stated  above  being 
insufficient  for  satisfactory  results,  the  workmen  established 
hospitals  by  their  private  means,  where  the  treatment  of  them- 
selves and  their  families  fs  performed  under  the  supervision  of 
the  chief  superintendent  of  the  arsenal  and  at  their  own  ex- 
pense for  the  actual  charge  for  medicines. 

As  for  the  relief  of  workmen  in  the  arsenal,  determined  bv 
Imperial  Ordinance  No.  86,^  enacted  in  40  Meiji  (1Q07).  the 
treatment  charge,  relief  allowance,  allowance  for  the  crippled 
or  disabled,  special  allowance,  funeral  expenses,  etc., are  ^iven. 
[while  besides  the  workmen  who  have  served  for  a  certain 
I  term  mav  receive,  bv  the  Ordinance  of  Help  for  the  Work- 
men in  the  Arsenal,  a  life  annuity  or  the  grant  of  a  lump 
^^iim.  if  they  retire. 

Besides,  private  corporations  are  organized  by  the  public 
contributions  of  the  officials  and  workmen,  and  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  chief  superintendent,  for  mutual  relief.  But  as 
there  are  found  some  unsatisfactory  points  in  this  system, 
there  is  in  course  of  organization  a  mutual  relief  association, 
to  unite  all  of  the  military  workmen. 

The  Navy 

From  the  establishment  of  the  naval  factories  to  35  Meiji 
(1902),  only  relief  as  follows,  by  the  Ordinance  of  Help  for  the 

•Ordinance  of  Special  Allowance  for  the  Government  Workmen  and  Laborers. 


SOCIAL  EFFECTS  249 

Government  Workmen  and  Laborers,  has  been  made  for  the 
dead  or  injured : 

(a)  To  the  survivors  of  those  who  die  from  injury  are  given 
funeral  expense  from  10  yen  to  15  yen  and  the  special  allow- 
ance from  80  days'  to  150  days'  wages. 

(b)  To  the  injured  are  given  Allowances  for  the  Crippled  or 
Disabled,  according  to  the  following  classification: 

1.  To  those  entirely  disabled  for  life:  from  120  to  170  days' 
wages. 

2.  To  those  disabled  from  their  work  or  service  for  life: 
from  60  to  140  days'  wages. 

3.  To  others,  crippled  or  disabled:  from  50  to  100  days' 
wages. 

(c)  To  the  injured,  but  not  crippled  or  disabled,  are  given 
allowances  according  to  the  following  classification: 

1.  To  those  retiring  from  work,  whose  treatment  is  esti- 
mated to  need  some  months:  from  30  to  50  days'  wages. 

2.  To  those  retiring  from  work  for  treatment:  from  one- 
third  to  one-half  day's  wages, 

(d)  To  those  not  injured  enough  to  receive  either  the 
Allowance  for  the  Crippled  or  Disabled,  or  the  allowance  shouii 
in  the  preceding  clause,  yet  needing  treatment  (limited  only  to 
those  not  being  treated  at  the  government  expense),  are  given 
the  actual  expense  for  treatment. 

What  is  stated  above  shows  the  relief  practiced  by  the 
government  for  the  injured  or  diseased  workmen  and  laborers 
employed.  But  the  ordinance  provides  several  strict  limita- 
tions, and  so  the  aid  seems  too  deficient  to  help  the  poor  labor- 
ers, who  have  no  money  capital  but  merely  the  physical  one. 
This  is  the  reason  why,  in  35  Meiji  (1902),  the  Workmen's 
Mutual  Relief  Association  was  organized,  by  which  a  hospital 
was  prepared  and  a  new  service  was  opened  in  addition  to  the 
Ordinance  of  Help  for  the  Government  Workmen  and  Laborers. 
Although  there  are  some  differences  of  terms  of  agreements 
relating  to  the  organization  and  the  manner  of  relief  in  associa- 
tions within  the  circle  of  every  factory,  (i)  the  admission  of 
the  injured  workmen  into  the  hospital  and  (2)  the  allowance 
to  be  given  to  survivors  of  the  injured  are  common  to  all. 


250  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

The  Workmen's  Mutual  Relief  Associations,  which  have 
been  established  in  every  arsenal  for  the  purpose  of  perfecting 
the  relief  of  the  workmen,  together  with  the  Ordinance  of 
Allowance  for  the  Government  Workmen  and  Laborers,  are 
different  in  their  organization  and  operation;  accordingly,  the 
fee  and  the  means  of  relief  are  diverse,  because  the  resources  of 
the  same  association  are  entirely  obtainable  from  the  contribu- 
tions of  the  workmen  themselves  and  their  friends.  But  as  a 
uniform  means  of  relief  service  common  to  the  circle  of  the  one 
and  same  office  was  recognized  to  be  an  urgent  necessity,  the 
Naval  Mutual  Relief  Association,  still  in  existence,  was  or- 
ganized by  Imperial  Ordinance  No.  i8,  issued  on  March  22, 
45  Meiji  (1912). 

Of  several  services  of  the  Naval  Mutual  Relief  Associations, 
those  given  to  the  injured,  to  the  survivors  of  those  who  have 
died  from  injury,  and  to  those  who  are  ill  from  injury,  are  as 
follows : 

All  these  cases  are  divided  into  five  classes  according  to  the 
degree  of  the  injury  and  the  sickness,  with  varying  allowances 
as  follows: 

-  First  Class,  to  the  survivors  of  those  who  have  died  from  in- 
jury: from  2  years  and  3  months'  to  2  years  and  6  months' 
wages. 

Second  Class,  to  those  who  have  lost  their  sight  or  have  been 
crippled  in  2  or  more  than  2  limbs  and  disabled  from  active 
work  during  life,  or  other  cases  corresponding  to  the  above: 
from  2  years'  to  2  years  and  6  months'  wages. 

Third  Class,  to  those  crippled  in  one  limb  and,  though  able 
to  do  their  own  business,  disabled  from  service  for  life,  or 
other  cases  corresponding  to  the  above:  from  i  year  and  2 
months'  to  i  year  and  6  months'  wages. 

Fourth  Class,  to  those  who,  though  able  to  do  their  own 
business  or  the  service,  are  incurably  injured  and  thereby  dis- 
charged :  from  6  months'  to  i  year's  wages. 

Fifth  Class,  to  those  who,  though  incurably  injured,  are  able 
to  continue  their  service:  from  i  month's  to  6  months'  wages. 

In  the  case  of  the  first  class,  besides  the  above-stated  allow- 


SOCIAL   EFFECTS  25I 

ance  for  the  injured  and  diseased,  allowances  in  the  case  of 
death,  as  shown  in  the  following,  are  given  in  accordance  with 
the  time  they  have  been  in  service. 

To  those  who  have  served  less  than  i  year:  90  days'  wages. 

To  those  who  have  served  1-2  years:  105  days'  wages. 

To  those  who  have  served  2-3  years:  120  days'  wages. 

To  those  who  have  served  more  than  3  years,  the  allowance 
is  increased  by  15  days'  wages  per  each  additional  year  of 
service. 

The  injured  or  sick,  except  those  of  the  first  class,  are  treated 
at  government  expense  in  certain  hospitals,  and  during  such 
periods,  or  those  periods  in  which  they  are  resting  from  work 
on  account  of  treatment  (excepting  public  holidays)  are,  it  is 
ordained,  to  be  supplied  with  half  of  the  daily  wages. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  Ordinance  of  Allowance  for 
the  Government  Workmen  and  Laborers  is  not  applied  to  those 
granted  the  above-mentioned  allowance  for  the  injured  or  sick. 

There  were  369  injured  (29  of  whom  died)  who  were  assisted 
by  naval  offices  during  the  first  year  of  Taisho  (1912),  while 
the  number  of  men  relieved  by  the  Mutual  Relief  Association, 
and  the  expense  therefor,  from  42  Meiji  (1909)  to  i  Taisho 
(191 2),  were  as  follows: 

Tv/r  Expense 
Year                                                                                        M^"  Yen 

1909 27,926  16,066 

1910 29,931  60,310 

191 1 32,072  90,195 

1912 33,441  132,500 

Population 

It  is  evident  that  the  existence  of  any  military  factory  af- 
fects the  increase  or  decrease  of  population  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  place  where  it  is  situated.  But  the  rate  of  increase 
or  decrease  may  not  be  exactly  inferred  from  the  condition  of 
such  great  cities  as  Tokyo  or  Osaka,  where  the  considerations 
involved  are  not  absolute,  but  relative,  because  in  those  cities 
there  may  be  many  factories  causing  the  change  of  population. 
This  is  the  reason  why,  to  make  a  more  significant  investiga- 


252  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

tion,  towns  having  relation  only  to  the  military  industry  and 
no  other  complicated  circumstances,  such  as  the  newly  opened 
naval  ports  of  Yokosuka,  Kure,  Sasebo  and  Maizuru,  are  to  be 
preferred  for  the  same  purpose.  This  is  the  method  that  is 
adopted  in  the  following  pages  in  showing  the  fluctuation  of 
population  in  each  town  separately. 

(I)  Yokosuka,  formerly  consisting  of  Yokosuka  Village, 
a  half  farming  and  half  fishing  community,  and  six  other  ham- 
lets, gradually  became  prosperous  after  the  repairing  yard  had 
been  set  up  there  by  the  Shogunate  in  i  Gwanji  (1864) ;  about 
2  Meiji  (1869),  the  damp  marshes  covered  by  thick  bushes 
were  filled  in;  about  4  Meiji  (1871),  further  reclamation  was 
accomplished  on  part  of  the  coast,  and  thereby,  at  last,  it 
showed  a  resemblance  to  a  small  town. 

After  the  establishment  of  the  Yokosuka  Dockyard  in  5 
Meiji  (1872)  its  population  was  gradually  increased,  and  yet, 
according  to  the  investigations  in  March,  12  Meiji  (1879),  there 
were  only  1,407  houses  and  3,422  men.  In  17  Meiji  (1884), 
the  naval  station  was  removed  there  from  Yokohama;  then, 
in  May,  22  Meiji  (1889),  the  Yokosuka  Dockyard  was  renamed 
the  Shipbuilding  Branch  of  the  Yokosuka  Naval  Station, 
when,  in  accordance  with  the  expansion  of  shipbuilding  work, 
workmen,  merchants  and  manufacturers  and  whoever  was 
connected  therewith  moved  there.  This  naturally  resulted 
in  expansion  and  the  increase  of  houses  and  population.-  When 
the  Sino-Japanese  War  broke  out  in  27  Meiji  (1894),  workmen 
were  in  great  demand,  owing  to  sudden  increase  of  work  in 
building  and  repairing  ships ;  and  when  that  war  came  to  a  con- 
clusion and,  as  a  result  of  the  completed  expansion  of  armament 
after  the  war,  the  officials  and  workmen  were  more  and  more 
multiplied,  the  circumstances  of  the  town  were  completely 
changed.  The  war  with  Russia  during  37-38  Meiji  (1904- 
1905)  necessitated  building  big  battleships,  and  caused  a  fur- 
ther enlargement  of  the  scale  of  the  dockyard  and  the  multipli- 
cation of  officials,  workmen,  merchants,  manufacturers,  so 
that  the  town  was  brought  at  last  to  a  municipal  organization 
in  40  Meiji  (1907).     Since  then  the  houses  and  population  of 


SOCIAL   EFFECTS  253 

the  city  have  annually  increased  until  it  reached,  according  to 
the  investigation  made  at  the  end  of  i  Taisho  (191 2),  12,695  ; 

houses  and  70,210  inhabitants,  and  at  the  present  time  it.  is     / 
said  to  have  a  round  80,000. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  how  much  importance  the  military 
industry  has  had  in  causing  the  progress  of  any  city  or  town 
from  the  fact  that  even  such  an  insignificant  village  as  Yoko- 
suka,  half  fishing  and  half  farming,  having  no  factor  to  make 
the  town  prosperous,  has  developed  up  to  its  present  condi- 
tion because  of  being  selected  as  the  site  for  the  naval  factory. 

(II)  On  the  site  where  the  city  of  Kure  now  stands  there 
held  been  three  fishing  and  farming  villages  before  the  naval 
port  was  founded  there.  The  establishment  of  the  naval  sta- 
tion in  22  Meiji  (1889)  must  be  said  to  be  the  origin  of  the  city 
of  Kure,  for,  upon  the  opening  of  the  naval  office,  a  large  num- 
ber of  merchants,  manufacturers  and  laborers  suddenly 
moved  there,  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  same  year,  a  small  poor 
village  was  changed  to  a  splendid  town  having  more  than 
2,000  houses  and  over  10,000  inhabitants.  When  the  Sino- 
Japanese  War  broke  out  in  27  Meiji  (1894),  the  entrance  of 
'ships  into  the  port  as  well  as  building  and  repairing  being 
increased,  workmen  assembled  there  in  large  numbers, 
and  the  circumstances  of  the  town  were  completely  altered. 
In  the  next  year  the  war  was  over  and  as  a  result  of  the 
enlargement  of  naval  construction  the  scale  of  the  Kure  Naval 
Arsenal  was  still  more  extended,  making  the  trade  and  manu- 
facture of  the  town  more  and  more  thriving,  until  at  last  it  was 
organized  as  a  municipality  having  more  than  13,000  houses 
and  more  than  72,000  inhabitants.  Thereafter,  following  the 
advancement  of  the  military  industry,  there  was  a  continuous 
increase  of  the  population,  and  when  the  war  in  37  Meiji  (1904) 
broke  out,  the  arsenal  was  very  busy  both  day  and  night  by 
multiplying  the  workmen,  which  naturally  resulted  in  the 
prosperity  and  the  Constant  development  of  the  city.  Peace 
was  restored  in  38  Meiji  (1905),  and  the  necessity  of  building 
large  warships  having  been  demonstrated  by  the  war, 
the  naval  arsenal  was  again  enlarged,  and  the  largest  dock, 


254  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC    EFFECTS 

able  to  make  with  ease  a  ship  of  30,000  tons,  to  reaHze  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  phrase  "head' of  the  naval  industrial  place  in 
the  Orient,"  was  constructed.  Accordingly,  the  city  quite 
changed  its  appearance,  and  merchants,  manufacturers  and 
workmen  crowded  there  in  haste,  so  that  the  number  of  houses 
and  inhabitants,  according  to  the  investigation  made  at  the 
end  of  41  Meiji  (1908)  were  21,676  and  98,701,  respectively. 
The  annual  development  of  the  city  and  the  increase  of  its 
population  in  accordance  with  the  advancement  of  the  mili- 
tary industry  was  so  marked  that  it  had  25,030  houses  and 
115,697  inhabitants  at  the  end  of  44  Meiji  (191 1),  and  at  the 
present  time  it  stands  at  the  head  of  all  the  Japanese  ports, 
having  125,000  inhabitants,  about  90  per  cent  of  whom  con- 
sist of  officials  and  workmen  connected  with  the  naval  arsenal, 
and  small  manufacturers,  merchants  dealing  in  the  goods  de- 
manded by  the  arsenal,  aswell  as  their  families.  It  must  be  the 
result  of  the  military  industry  that  Kure  became  such  a  large 
city  before  thirty  years  had  elapsed  since  the  opening  of  the 
port;  in  a  word,  the  development  of  the  military  industry  has, 
to  be  sure,  greatly  affected  that  of  the  city  itself. 

(Ill)  The  present  city  of  Sasebo  had  been,  before  the 
naval  port  was  founded  there,  merely  a  desolate  fishing  ham- 
let situated  in  an  obscure  spot  of  Kyushu,  and  having  only 
800  houses  about  12  Meiji  (1879).  When  it  was  decided  to 
set  up  a  naval  station  in  19  Meiji  (1886),  and  construction  was 
begun,  a  great  many  merchants,  manufacturers  and  laborers 
assembled  from  all  quarters,  with  the  result  that  many  lots  of 
land  were  cleared  and  a  number  of  houses  were  built,  until 
there  was  formed  a  small  town.  In  22  Meiji  (1889),  the  con- 
struction of  the  naval  station  was  entirely  completed,  and  it 
was  opened  in  June.  Even  at  the  end  of  the  same  year  the 
town  had  more  than  1,500  houses  and  more  than  9,800  in- 
habitants. When  the  Sino- Japanese  War  broke  out  in  27 
Meiji  (1894),  vessels  of  all  kinds  entered  and  left  the  port  in 
large  numbers,  while  travelers,  public  and  private,  passed  by 
in  uninterrupted  succession,  so  that  there  was  wonderful 
activity  and  prosperity  beyond  the  power  of  language   to 


SOCIAL   EFFECTS  255 

describe.     The  result  was  that  trade  grew  very  brisk  and  the 
condition  of  the  city  was  quite  changed. 

After  the  war,  the  amount  of  goods  demanded  by  the  arsenal 
kept  parallel  with  the  enlargement  of  its  scale,  which  led  the 
town  into  such  a  prosperous  condition  that,  after  32  Meiji 
(1899),  800  to  1,000  houses  were  built  annually;  and  yet 
the  demand  was  not  sufficiently  met.  Thus  the  expansion  of 
the  town  continued  until  it  grew  into  a  large  city,  and  in  April, 
35  Meiji  (1902),  was  organized  as  a  municipality,  having  then 
more  than  8,300  houses  and  about  50,900  inhabitants. 

Then  the  Russo-Japanese  War  began,  and  the  naval  indus- 
try was  at  the  acme  of  its  busiest  condition  on  account  of  the 
construction,  repairing,  etc.,  of  warships.  There  was  a  won- 
derful crowd  of  merchants,  manufacturers  and  laborers;  and 
the  figures  of  the  investigation  made  at  the  end  of  38  Meiji 
(1905),  of  13,606  houses  and  70,703  inhabitants,  tell  us  how 
the  town  made  a  sudden  increase  in  population. 

The  multiplication  of  the  workmen  employed  there,  keeping 
pace  with  the  enlargement  of  the  scale  of  the  arsenal  after - 
the  Russo-Japanese  War,  made  the  trade  and  industry  more 
prosperous.  It  was  found  at  the  end  of  44  Meiji  (191 1)  to 
have  had  12,755  houses  and  86,409  inhabitants,  and  even  now 
such  an  increase  is  continuing.  In  short,  the  advancement  of 
this  town  is,  no  doubt,  as  in  the  case  of  Yokosuka  and  Kure, 
mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  it  was  made  a  site  of  the  naval 
industry. 

(IV)  The  naval  port  Maizuru  consists  of  two  towns,  Shin- 
Maizuru  and  Amarube,  both  of  which,  before  the  establish- 
ment of  the  naval  port,  were  humble  hamlets  facing  the  north- 
ern sea,  and  inhabited  by  farmers  and  fishermen.  Upon  the 
opening  of  the  Maizuru  Naval  Station  in  October,  34  Meiji 
( 1 901),  the  population  suddenly  increased ;  and  after  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War,  owing  to  the  busy  work  of  the  military  industry, 
which  resulted  in  an  increase  of  workmen  and  consequently 
the  development  of  trade  and  industry,  the  city  grew  more  and 
more  flourishing,  so  that  even  in  39  Meiji  (1906)  it  had  more 
than  4,000  houses  and  over  14,000  inhabitants.     The  perfect 


256  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:    ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

arrangement  of  the  same  port  afterward  caused  a  greater 
activity  of  the  naval  industry  and  a  gradual  increase  of  houses 
and  population,  so  that,  finally,  last  year,  the  houses  and  in- 
habitants numbered  over  5,800  and  23,500,  respectively. 

Although  this  town,  because  of  its  youth  and  smaller  scale, 
compared  with  other  naval  ports,  had  no  population,  suddenly 
increased  like  the  above  stated  ports,  yet  a  greater  develop- 
ment for  the  future  is  to  be  expected,  judging  from  the  increase 
of  population  which  is  still  going  as  before.  The  answer  to 
the  question,  why  the  town  has  such  a  good  condition  in  the 
present  and  future  is,  "the  development  of  the  naval  industry," 
which  testifies,  in  fact,  how  the  military  industry  is  able  to 
encourage  the  expansion  of  any  place. 

Many  instances  are  given  above,  showing  the  fluctuation 
of  population  at  any  place  where  a  naval  factory  is  set  up. 
The  same  instances  are  found  at  the  places  where  the  military 
industry  is  carried  on.  They  are  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Tokyo,  the  woolen  cloth  factory  in  Minami  Senju,  the  ammu- 
nition factory  in  the  neighborhood  of  Oji  and  Itabashi,  in  the 
country,  the  influence  of  the  arms  factory  at  Atsuta  (Aichi 
prefecture) ,  etc.,  upon  the  vicinity  whereby  it  was  changed  to  a 
flourishing  town;  all  these  are  actual  instances  manifestly 
showing  the  fact  that  every  military  factory  has  contributed  to 
the  development  of  the  locality  where  it  is  situated. 

Public  Peace  and  Sanitation 

The  workmen  engaged  in  the  military  or  naval  factories  are 
being  selected  from  the  natives,  mostly  those  who  were  honest 
and  good  being  educated  in  their  homes  under  the  control  of 
father  or  brother.  Moreover,  when  they  are  adopted,  their 
social  positions  are  minutely  examined  by  ordering  them  to 
present  a  certificate  from  a  public  officer,  or  by  direct  inquiry 
regarding  the  same  matter  at  the  public  office.  Anyone  who 
is  of  bad  character,  or  has  been  condemned  for  a  crime,  is  re- 
jected, while  those  who  conduct  themselves  irregularly  after 
they  have  been  taken  in  are  dismissed  without  hesitation,  and 
thus  the  public  morality  is  maintained.     Because,  in  addition 


SOCIAL   EFFECTS  257 

to  this,  the  fostering  of  morality  at  large,  as  well  as  the  idea 
of  public  duty,  regularity,  and  cooperation,  indispensable  to 
workmen  engaging  in  the  military  industry,  is  diligently  devel- 
oped, there  is  reason  to  believe  that  all  workmen  in  the  military 
service,  even  when  they  are  outside  of  the  factory,  have  a  bet- 
ter effect  upon  the  public  peace  and  popular  morals,  compared 
with  the  ordinary  workmen  not  trained  and  not  self-restrained. 
Moreover,  owing  to  the  fact  that  there  is  no  perfect  trade 
union  like  those  of  European  countries  to  be  found  in  Japan, 
and  that  it  is  rather  a  characteristic  of  the  Japanese  w;orkman 
not  to  have  the  spirit  of  insubordination  to  his  employer,  any 
riot  such  as  a  strike  has  never  been  carried  out,  and  so  the  con- 
trol of  the  public  peace  is  very  easy.  Again,  no  real  strike  has 
been  carried  out  by  the  military  or  naval  factory  since  the 
Restoration  of  Meiji,  although  some  time  ago,  in  the  Tokyo 
Arsenal,  in  the  case  of  the  army,  and  in  the  Kure  Naval 
Arsenal,  in  the  case  of  the  navy,  a  part  of  the  workmen,  pre- 
senting a  certain  request,  acted  as  if  preparing  for  a  strike,  but 
this  move  was  immediately  checked.  From  this  fact  it  is  to  be 
inferred  in  what  satisfactory  circumstances,  not  likely  to  dis- 
turb the  public  peace,  are  the  Japanese  mihtary  factories. 

As  to  sanitation,  all  the  military  and  naval  factories  have 
military  surgeons  under  their  exclusive  control ;  and  they  are  in 
charge  of  the  maintenance  of  the  daily  health  of  the  workmen, 
consultation  and  treatment  of  the  patients,  and  several  other 
services.  Medical  examination  and  lectures  on  hygiene  are 
given  regularly  or  irregularly,  while  at  the  time  of  the  preva- 
lence of  infectious  diseases,  methods  of  prevention  are  devised ; 
especially  when  there  is  an  epidemic  of  smallpox,  vaccination 
is  strictly  enforced  upon  all  the  workmen — all  of  which  con- 
tributes successfully  to  diffusing  the  idea  of  sanitation  in 
private  as  well  as  in  public.  In  short,  the  workmen  engaged 
in  the  military  service  are,  as  they  are  put  under  the  strictest 
care  for  sanitation  and  protection  against  infectious  diseases 
while  they  live  in  the  factory,  far  different,  in  their  care  of 
sanitation,  from  other  workmen,  who,  being  in  want  of  sani- 
tary ideas,  cause  disturbance  to  sanitation  within  and  without 

18 


258  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

the  factory ;  and  thus  even  when  miHtary  workmen  are  outside 
of  the  factory,  in  their  home  or  native  places,  they  will  have  a 
good  influence  upon  the  public.  All  these  effects  influencing 
sanitation  at  large  must  be  said  to  be  a  valuable  contribution 
of  the  military  industry. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
CONCLUSION 

The  view  of  the  influences  of  the  military  industry  upon 
the  national  economy  of  Japan  is  substantially  as  stated  above. 
At  the  present  time,  there  are  28  factories,  both  military  and 
naval,  employing  75,000  workmen  and  spending  an  enormous 
sum  of  money — about  80  to  90  million  yen  during  the  latesjtj 
fiscal  year.     It  is  a  matter  of  course  that  such  a  great  industry 
should  have  an  important  effect  upon  all  the  industries  in 
Japan  and  consequently  is  producing  marked  results  upon  the 
national  life.     The  policy  and  administration  of  the  military 
industry  in  any  state  is  actually  a  great  problem  upon  which 
depends  the  fate  of  the  state;  that  is  to  say,  in  case  it  should 
happen  that  the  policy  is  mistaken  or  the  administration  is  not 
proper,  the  country  might  hardly  maintain  its  position  not 
only  from  the  military,  but  also  from  the  financial  and  the 
economic  points  of  view.     Although  the  policy  which  the  Jap- 
anese Empire  has  adopted  for  military  industry  since  the 
Restoration  of  Meiji  is,  like  the  program  of  the  general  national 
defense,  not  free  from  the  criticism  that  it  has  had  a  tendency 
toward  too  rapid  progress,  compared  with  the  financial  and      ,  ^^ 
economic  condition  of  Japan,  the  military  industry,  being     V 
rather  opportunely  administered,  and  the  whole  nation's  effort 
being  added,  has  met  satisfactorily  the  demands  in  war  and      ■;  >  J 
has  made  her  an  honorable  victor  in  every  conflict.     D^re^^    \ 
Ter,~as  already  stated,  leading,  protecting  or  encouraging(         \ 
/continuously  the  related  industries  and  means  of  communicaA        I 
tion,  especially  several  industries  of  the  people,  it  has  injio-r 
small    decree  promoted    their  advancement.     Most  of   the 
achievements  which  raised  the  Japanese  industries,  especially 
the  manufacturing  industry,  as  high  as  their  present  position 
a.t  one  bound  within  fifty  years  after  the  Restoration,  are  due  to 
no  other  than  the  military  industry.     It  is  a  fact  that,  observed 

259 


260  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

from  past  results,  it  occupies  an  important  part  of  the  expendi- 
tures for  national  defense,  and  a  large  amount  has  been  paid  in 
its  administration  which  disturbed  the  financial  and  economic 
equilibrium  of  the  country,  so  that  it  seemed  as  if  she  made 
partial  development  in  the  military  line  only.  At  the  same 
time,  however,  it  is  an  indisputable  fact  that  other  government 
and  private  industries,  being  led  and  guided  by  military  indus- 
try, continuously  advancing  by  rushes,  shortened  the  term 
needed  for  their  development.  These  are  not  all  of  the  effects 
of  the  military  industry,  because  its  extraordinary  advance- 
ment added  a  powerful  weight  to  the  victory  in  both  the  Sino- 
Japanese  and  the  Russo-Japanese  Wars,  with  the  result  that^ 
without  doubt,  the  nation  was  greatly  advanced  materially 
nd  immaterially,  and  not  only  the  industries,  but  the  general 
conomic  world  was  benefited  directly  and  indirectly.  These 
events  in  the  past  economic  world  in  Japan,  the  existence  of 
which  no  one  denies,  prove  that  the  military  industry,  which 
advanced  on  account  of  armament  expansion  often  undertaken 
since  the  beginning  of  Meiji  and  the  wars  that  took  place  dur- 

in(y  thn^f-  ypart;,  Qpprrm  to  havp  bppn  a  ronHiirtor  of  thp  most 

roper  industrial  policy. 
Now  will  those  events  as  seen  above,  the  economic  effects  of 
the  military  industry  in  the  past,  continue  also  for  the  future 
in  the  same  condition?  Or  should  they  be  made  to  do  so?  In 
other  words,  is  it  possible  that  the  military  industry  stands  in 
such  a  position  as  to  lead  or  protect  the  general  industries,, 
especially  the  manufacturing  industry,  for  the  present  and 
ture  as  before?  Or  isit  necessary  for  it  to  do  so?  The  man- 
ufacturing industry  among  the  people  of  Japan  at  the  present 
time,  having  developed  in  a  marked  degree,  is  far  different  in 
its  condition  from  that  of  some  years  ago.  It  is  no  longer 
necessary,  when  the  popular  industry  has  made  such  rapid 
progress  as  nowadays,  that  it  follow  behind  the  military 
industry  and  be  led  by  the  latter.  Especially,  some  industries 
are  running  parallel  to  the  latter — no,  are  even  one  step  in 
advance — so  that  the  latter  can  not  longer  be  the  leader. 
Not  only  with  the  manufacturing  industry,  but  with  any 


CONCLUSION  261 

industry  is  this  the  case.  It  is,  therefore,  no  difficult  thing  to 
foresee  that,  for  the  future,  the  miUtary  industry  will  not  pro- 
duce the  same  effects  as  before  in  the  economic  line,  if  we  judge 
from  the  economic  advancement  at  the  present  time  in  Japan. 
Although  it  will  benefit  the  economic  circle  at  large  in  future, 
its  effect  must  gradually  diminish,  compared  with  the  past. 
Moreover,  in  the  case  of  that  industry,  such  a  large  sum  of  ex-"--, 
penditure  is  yearly  paid  that,  according  to  the  budget  for  2  \ 
Taisho  (191 3),  succeeded  by  that  for  the  following  year,  it 
amounted  to  over  97,936,000  yen,  ordinary  and  extraordinary  / 
together,  for  the  military,  and  over  97,082,000  yen  for  the 
navy,  or  over  195,018,000  yen  in  all,  which  sum  corresponds  to 
33  per  cent  and  a  fraction  of  the  whole  budget  of  expenditures, 
Ordinary' and  extraordinary,  for  the  same  year.  Of  these 
expenditures,  those  for  the  military  industry  are  divided  into 
the  following  items:  those  belonging  to  Special  Accounts,  in^ 
eluding  the  expenses  for  the  work  of  the  Tokyo  and  Osaka 
Arsenals  and  the  Senju  Woolen  Cloth  Factory,  funds  of  the 
Naval  Arsenals,  and  the  expenditure  for  the  Naval  Colliery, 
as  well  as  the  ordinary  and  extraordinary  expenses  belonging 
to  General  Accounts.  In  all  they  reached  about  ninety  mil- 
lion yen,  which  corresponds  to  i S  per  cent  and  a  fraction  of  the 
total  sum  of  the  annual  expenditure  in  the  budget  for  the  same 
year.  These  expenditures,  according  to  the  figures  of  the  latesf^ 
years,  are  not  merely  making  a  marked  increase,  but  the  rate 
of  increase,  too,  is  being  raised  step  by  step,  owing  to  the 
constant  expansion  of  the  armament  and  the  invention  of  new 
weapons  necessitated  by  the  competition  in  armament  among 
the  countries  of  the  world.  As  a  result  of  the  excessive  expan- 
sion of  Japanese  finance  caused  by  this  fact,  the  capital  among 
the  ppople.  which  otherwise  would  have  served  for  industries 
at  largp  wact  ah^nrhed  into  the  circle  of  the  military,  and  thus 
occurred  the  gradual  decrease  of  the  capacity  of  the  nation  in 
economy  and  general  Industrie.  The  profit  which  the  mili- 
tary industry  will  bring  to  the  national  economy  hereafter  by 
its  expansion  perhaps  amounts  to  nothing,  if  the  loss  caused  by  J 
the  same  be  set  off — no,  rather  the  latter  might  be  greater-:^ 


262  MILITARY   INDUSTRIES:   ECONOMIC   EFFECTS 

It  is  the  natural  conclusion  that  any  person  who,  inferring  the 
future  benefits  of  the  military  industry  by  induction  from  the 
past  events,  will  consider  its  expansion  as  more  and  more  nec- 
essary for  the  development  of  the  national  economy  of  Japan, 
must  be  pronounced  to  be  under  a  deep  illusion. 

We  are  now  concluding  our  essay  and  have  a  few  words  to 
add.  At  present,  the  powerful  states  in  the  world  are  devot- 
ing themselves  to  armament  expansion  without  limit,  and 
Japan  is  year  after  year  expanding  her  armament  by  making 
big  guns  and  large  warships  with  the  utmost  haste.  If  all 
countries  compete  with  each  other  on  such  conditions,  it  can 
not  hilt  result  jn  l^he  exhaustion  of  nationg,]  inrf.altVj  But  even 
these  world  evils,  from  which  no  state  can  escape,  may  be 
modified  and  turned  to  advantage  by  the  policy  and  the 
method  of  administration. 


INDEX 


Accounting,  in  arsenals,  32,  34  et  seg. 

Age,  Yatabori,  18. 

Aginoura,  establishment  of  iron  works 
at,  19. 

Agriculture,  effect  of  military  industries, 
203  et  seg. 

Akamatsu-Noriyoski,  Daijo  (chief  of 
Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal),  54. 

Alcohol:  manufacture  of,  65;  at  Itabashi 
powder  mill,  71. 

Aluminum:  use  of,  in  shipbuilding,  81; 
in  manufacture  of  lunch  box  and 
water  bottle,  113. 

Ammunition:  development  of  manu- 
facture of,  14-15,  46  et  seg.;  factory 
for  manufacture  of,  at  Tokyo,  31; 
enlargement  of  factory  at  Tokyo,  33; 
manufacture  of,  at  Osaka  Arsenal,  46; 
demand  for,  during  Satsuma  rebel- 
lion, 47;  making  of,  for  Murata  rifle, 
50-51,  71;  for  mountain  guns,  51; 
demand  for,  at  time  of  Sino-Japanese 
War,  71.     See  also  Powder. 

Aomori  (Oshu  Province),  shipbuilding 
at,  26. 

Aoyama,  special  powder  magazine  at, 

32- 

Arisaka,  Colonel  Nariaka  (chief  super- 
intendent of  Tokyo  Arsenal),  68-69. 

Arms  ("Teppo"):  early  use  of,  3-4;  first 
importation  of,  5;  manufacture  of, 
6-7;  invention  of  quick-firing,  8;  im- 
portation of  "Geweh'r"  rifle,  8,  38; 
importation  of  "Minie"  type,  9,  38; 
introduction  of  machine,  9;  importa- 
tion of  "Fransu"  type,  10;  invention 
of  turnable  ("Sempudai"),  11;  prog- 
ress in  manufacture  of,  13;  manu- 
facture of  mountain,  field  and  breech- 
loading,  14,  40;  use  of  magazine  rifle 
in  army,  33;  institute  for  examina- 
tion of,  36-37;  manufacture  of  gun 
carriages,  37;  Enfield  rifles,  38;  im- 
perfections in  domestic,  39;  rifles 
manufactured  at  Tokyo  Arsenal,  41 ; 
purchase  of  machinery  for  coast  and 
siege,  41 ;  remodeling  of  Enfields,  41- 
42;  Murata  rifle  as  standard,  42-43; 
remodeling  of  Chassepot,  42;  manu- 
facture of  howitzers,  42;  pattern  for 
cavalry  rifle,  42;  rifles  manufactured 
at  Tokyo  Arsenal,  43;  progress  in 
making  of,  43;  magazine  rifles  manu- 


factured at  Tokyo  Arsenal,  44;  man- 
ufacture of  coast,  44;  manufacture 
of  short  fire,  at  Osaka  Arsenal,  45; 
Krupp  gun,  48-49,  72;  improvement 
in,  after  Sino-Japanese  War,  64;  rifle 
of  30th  year  patterns  and  quick  firing, 
68  et  seg.;  Maxim  machine  and  Hotch- 
kiss  machine,  68;  increased  need  for, 
during  and  after  Russo-Japanese 
War,  85;  improvements  in  principal, 
86-87. 

Arms  Office,  work  of,  30,  38,  46. 

Arsenals:  at  Tokyo  and  Osaka,  29; 
head,  31 ;  organization  and  regulations 
of,  31  et  seg.;  accounting  in,  32,  34  et 
seg.;  area  of  Osaka,  36;  branches  es- 
tablished, 37;  revision  of  regulations 
of,  37-38;  manufacture  of  small  arms 
at  Tokyo,  39;  manufacture  of  guns 
at  Osaka,  39;  forging,  casting  and 
pattern  making  at  Osaka,  40;  expend- 
itures of  Osaka,  40;  use  of  steam 
power  in,  40;  labor-saving  devices 
used  at  Tokyo,  40-41;  manufacture 
of  rifles  at  Tokyo,  41 ;  increase  of 
.  workmen  in  Tokyo,  41 ;  gun  carriage, 
cannon  and  mortar  manufacture  at 
Osaka,  43-44;  harness  manufacturing 
at  Tokyo,  44,  99;  shell  manufacturing 
at,  46-47;  increase  of  machinery  in, 
47;  manufacture  of  ammunition  in 
Tokyo,  50;  number  of  shells  made  at 
Osaka,  50;  manufacture  of  shrapnel 
at  Osaka,  51;  naval,  at  Yokosuka, 
52,  75-76,  142  et  seg.;  enlargement  of, 
after  Sino-Japanese  War,  64;  inspec- 
tion of,  by  Arms  Inspection  Bureau, 
65-66;  workmen's  relief,  66;  number 
of  workmen  in,  66;  employment  of 
women  in,  68;  naval,  at  Maizuru,  75; 
121,  138;  naval,  at  Tokyo,  75;  tor- 
pedo-boat building  at  naval,  80  et  seg.; 
manufacture  of  telephone  and  tele- 
graph in,  90;  manufacture  of  bridging 
materials  in,  92;  manufacture  of 
automobiles  in,  96;  manufacture  of 
horseshoes  at,  100;  present  plan  of, 
loo-ioi;  revenue,  number  of  work- 
men and  wages  in,  102;  principal 
articles  manufactured  in,  103;  battle- 
ship, cruiser,  destroyer  and  torpedo- 
boat  construction  in,  121  et  seg.; 
instruction  of  workmen  in,  1 74  et  seg.; 


263 


264 


INDEX 


steel  founding  in,  183;  by-products 
manufactured  in,  216;  wages  of  work- 
men, 242  et  seq.;  medical  treatment 
for  employes,  248. 

Artillery  Artificer  Training  School,  31. 

Artisans:  skill  of,  before  Meiji  Restora- 
tion, 4;  advance  of,  in  shipbuilding, 

Australia,  imports  from,  231. 
Automobiles,  96. 

Bacquet  (French  smith),  as  teacher,  41. 

Balsing,  174;  fermentation  system,  178. 

Bayonet,  manufacture  of,  69. 

Beef,  canning  of,  115. 

Bicycles,  use  of,  in  Sino-Japanese  War, 

94-. 

Biscuit,  making  of,  in  arsenals,  115. 

Bracialini,  Scipione  (Major),  artillery 
teacher,  34,  45. 

Bridges:  military,  90-91;  manufacture 
of  materials  for,  at  arsenals,  92. 

Briquette,  manufacture  of ,  154-155. 

Bureau  of  Military  Affairs,  establish- 
ment of,  30. 

Canning,  173-174,  194;  of  beef,  115. 

Cannon,  14;  manufacture  of,  in  Osaka 
Arsenal,  42  et  seq.,  69  et  seq.;  manu- 
facture of  gun  carriage,  43  et  seq. 

Canteen:  machine  for  making,  69;  num- 
ber made  (1910-1912),  114. 

Cartridges:  manufacture  of,  in  Osaka 
Arsenal,  46;  for  Murata  rifle,  48,  51; 
in  Tokyo  Arsenal,  50,  71-72. 

Casting,  65;  introduction  of,  in  Osaka 
Arsenal,  40;  labor  saving  methods 
used  in,  40-41 ;  of  bronze  for  cartridge 
cases,  49. 

Central  Medical  Material  Depot  (later. 
Medical  Material  Department),  ob- 
ject, 92. 

Charcoal,  manufacture  of,  49. 

"Closed  Door"  Policy,  7. 

Clothing:  manufacture  of  military,  103 
et  seq.,  109  et  seq.,  174;  improvements 
in  manufacture  of,  178,  193  et  seq., 
197  et  seq. 

Coal:  used  in  woolen  factories,  106; 
naval  colliery,  153;  importation  of, 
153;  profit  and  loss  in  operation  of 
naval  colliery,  154;  smokeless,  178; 
influence  of  military  industries  on 
v  use  of,  208-209;  consumption  of,  in 
army  and  navy  factories,  211;  annual 
imports  of  (1868-1890),  222. 

Conscription  system,  beginning  of,  4. 

Corn,  cleaning  of,  115. 

Crane:  electric,  use  of,  67;  in  shipbuild- 
ing, 126. 


Creusot  Company  (France),  torpedo- 
boat  parts  imported  from,  59-60. 

Crimean  War,  17-18. 

Cruisers:  built  (1883-1888),  57-58;  pro- 
gram for  building,  after  Sino-Japa- 
nese War,  74;  new  program  for,  121 
et  seq. 

Curtius,  Donker  (Dutch  Consul),  18. 

Department  of  Railway  Materials, 
creation  and  object  of,  64. 

Dispatch  Boats,  121-122,  127;  built 
(1883-1888),  57. 

Destroyers  (Torpedo-Boat),  77  et  seq.; 
domestic  construction  of,  121-122; 
new  program  for,  130  et  seq.;  188; 
improvements  in  construction,  130 
et  seq.;  details  of  construction  of 
(from  Russo-Japanese  War  to  present 
time),  134-135- 

Dockyards:  at  Uraga,  52 ;  at  Kagoshima, 
52;  at  Yokosuka,  54,  57;  at  Onohama, 
54,  57;  at  Ishikawa-Jima,  56-57;  at 
Kawasaki,  56,  127;  at  Tsukiji,  91;  at 
Mitsubishi,  127;  at  Ryojun,  138. 

Dynamite,  tests  of,  at  Itabashi  powder 
mill,  73. 

Electricity,  used  in  shell  factory,  67. 

Engineers,  from  foreign  countries,  3. 

Engines  and  Motors:  in  clothing  and 
shoemaking  factories,  111-112;  sum- 
mary of  military  industrial,  I18-119; 
in  shipbuilding,  143  et  seq.;  progress 
in  manufacture  of  ship,  149,  189; 
factories  for  manufacture  of,  150;  for 
warships,  151-152. 

England:  warships  built  by,  22,  74,  88; 
machines  imported  from,  47;  des- 
troyers built  by,  77;  imports  from, 
231. 

Etchujima  (Yedo),  shipbuilding  at,  16. 

Ether:  manufacture  of,  65;  at  Itabashi 
powder  mill,  71. 

Etorop  Island,  13. 

Exports,  increase  of,  217. 

Factory  of  the  Shipbuilding  Bureau,  52. 

Factories,  29  et  seq.,  64  et  seq.;  lack  of, 
4,  28;  naval,  75;  private,  in  manu- 
facture of  munitions  after  Russo- 
Japanese  War,  85,  183  et  seq.;  statis- 
tics of  motive  power,  workmen  and 
expenditures  of  Railway  Material 
Department,  95-96;  in  manufacture 
of  woolen  cloth,  104  et  seq.,  11 1;  im- 
portance of,  105;  shoemaking,  109, 
III;  for  haversacks  and  knapsacks, 
113;  for  engine  making,  150;  govern- 
ment protection  of,  171;  training  of 


INDEX 


265 


men  in,  173;  influence  of  military,  on 
private,  201;  coal  consumption  in 
army  and  navy,  211;  efi'ect  of  mili- 
tary, on  trade,  215;  effect  of  military, 
on  population,  251  et  seq.;  sanitation 
in,  257. 

Favius,  Captain  G.,  18. 

Field  Glasses,  manufacture  of,  34,  45. 

Forestry,  influence  of  military  indus- 
tries on,  206  et  seq. 

Forging,  65;  beginning  of,  at  Osaka 
Arsenal,  40. 

Formosa,  expedition  to,  56,  217. 

Fornelis,  Antonio,  Italian  engineer  as 
teacher,  43-44. 

France:  officers  from,  as  military  in- 
structors, 9,  21;  guns  imported  from, 
10;  visit  of  warships  of,  12;  imports 
from,  231. 

Fukiage,  30. 

Fulminate,  mercuric,  manufacture  of. 

Furnace:  introduction  of  duodecagonal 
reverberatory,  42;  annealing,  for 
cartridge  case,  48-49;  use  of  gas,  67; 
acid,  at  Osaka,  70,  73. 

Fuse,  desmarets,  47;  compound,  48, 
50-51,  72-73,  93;  base,  50;  alteration 
of  base,  93;  Krupp  base,  93;  percus- 
sion, 93-94. 

Gaggenau  Company  (Germany),  auto- 
mobiles imported  from,  96. 

Gas,  use  of,  in  factories,  49. 

Geki,  Inouye,  inventor,  9,  11. 

Germany:  warship  built  by,  22;  im- 
ports from,  231. 

Gishu,  95. 

Glasgow,  20. 

Goho  (Chinese  scholar),  5. 

Great  Britain:  visit  of  fleet,  12;  naval 
officers  as  instructors,  21;  warships 
built  by,  22. 

Grillo,  Major  Pompeio,  Italian  artillery 
instructor,  43,  44. 

Gunboats,  56;  built  (1883-1888),  57. 

Gun  cotton,  manufacture  of,  34,  51. 

Gunpowder,  5;  manufacture  of,  15,  75. 

Guns  {See  Arms). 

Hachiman-mure,  iron  foundry  at,  190 
et  seq. 

Hagi,  small  arms  factory  at,  36,  41. 

Hakodate,  shipbuilding  at,  22,  24. 

Hardes  (Dutch  naval  engineer),  19. 

Harness:  manufacture  of,  38,  44,  174; 
kinds  of,  97  et  seq. 

Haruki  (Izumi  Province),  gun  examina- 
tion institute  at,  37. 


Haversacks,  manufacture  of,  113,  200. 

Heer,  German  instructor  in  cartridge 
case  manufacture,  48. 

Heta,  17. 

Hida-Hamagoro,  chief  of  Factory  of 
Shipbuilding  Bureau,  52. 

Hideyoshi,  Toyotomi,  10. 

Himeji,  shipbuilding  at,  25;  railway 
facilities  at,  228. 

Hiroshima,  235;  branch  arsenal  at,  37; 
manufacture  of  clothing  at,  109;  rail- 
way facilities  at,  227. 

Hisso,  Giacomo  (Italian  engineer),  as 
instructor,  43. 

Holland:  instructions  in  gun  making,  5; 
treaty  of  commerce  with,  7;  purchase 
of  guns  from,  13;  advice  on  develop- 
ment of  navy,  17-18;  help  of  instruc- 
tors in  naval  training,  18-19;  gift  of 
battleship  by,  22;  imports  from,  231. 

Horses,  equipment  for,  97  et  seq. 

Hotchkiss,  machine  gun,  68. 

Horseshoes,  manufacture  of,  99-100. 

Hunhopas,  95. 

Hyogo,  iron  works  at,  52. 

Hyuga-no-kami,  Shibata,  mission  to 
France,  21. 

Ichimu,  Inatomi,  9. 

Imports:  of  materials  for  military  in- 
dustries, 108-109,  114.  117.  182,  217, 
219,  231;  comparison  of  annual,  of 
principal  metals  (1868-1912),  220- 
221;  of  coal  (1868-1890),  222. 

Industries;  rise  of  new,  167  et  seq.;  effect 
of  Russo-Japanese  War  on,  170;  pro- 
tection of,  170-171 ;  effect  of  military, 
on  national  enterprises,  196-197. 

Instructors:  French  officers  as  military 
and  naval,  9,  14,  20-21,  40,  47,  54; 
Dutch,  II,  18-19;  English,  21;  Bel- 
gian, 40;  Italian,  43  et  seq.;  German, 
48. 

Inventions,  176  et  seq. 

Iron:  establishment  of,  works  at  Agin- 
oura,  19;  at  Nagasaki,  52;  at  Hyogo, 
52;  importance  of,  181,  189  et  seq., 
209;  imports  of,  221. 

Ishikawa-Jima  (Yedo):  shipbuilding  at, 
22  et  seq.,  56;  Administrative  Bureau 
at,  under  Navy  Department,  53; 
dockyard  at,  185. 

Itabashi:  powder  mill,  at,  31  et  seq.; 
enlargement  of  powder  mill  at,  33; 
powder  making  for  small  arms  at,  41 ; 
for  rifles,  47;  for  field  and  mountain 
guns,  49;  making  of  niter  and  gun 
cotton  at,  51;  manufacture  of  mer- 
curic fulminate,  ether  and  alcohol  at, 
65- 


266 


INDEX 


Iwabana,  33;  black  powder  manufac- 
tured at,  49. 

Izumi,  6,  10,  17,  36-37. 

Izumishinden,  special  powder  magazine 
at,  32. 

Jauly,  Philippe,  Belgian  instructor  in 
small  arms  making,  40. 

Jindayu,  Kunitomo,  machine  gun  me- 
chanic, 9. 

Kagezo,  Ya  tabor  i,  18. 

Kagoshima:  shipbuilding  at,  22,  24; 
branch  factory  at,  35;  dockyard  at, 
52. 

Kaiser,  Dutch  mstructor  m  gun  manu- 
facture, II. 

Kawasaki:  dockyard  at,  185;  dispatch 
boat  construction  at,  127;  submarine 
construction  at,  137;  equipment  of 
dockyard  at,  1 87 ;  building  of  torpedo- 
boat  destroyers  at,  188. 

Kirby,  owner  of  Onohama  Dockyard, 

54. 
Knapsacks,  manufacture  of,  113. 
Kobe:  naval  factory  and  dockyard  at, 

20;  Kawasaki  Dockyard  at,  56,  185. 
Koishikawa:  manufacture  of  arms  in 

factory  at,  30;  high  explosives  mill  at, 

.     32. 

Kokura,  5. 

Krupp  Gun,  48-49,  72. 

Kumamoto:  branch  arsenal  at,  37;  riot- 
ing at,  41,  47;  railway  facilities,  228. 

Kure:  naval  station,  at  54-55,  75;  ship- 
building at,  58,  77,  79;  torpedo-boat 
building  at,  80-81;  battleship  con- 
struction at,  121,  123  e/  seq.;  plan  and 
structures  of  naval  arsenal  at,  144; 
number  of  workmen  at,  145;  engine 
making  at,  150;  education  plan  of 
factory  at,  174  et  seq.;  steel  founding 
at,  183;  railway  facilities,  225-226; 
harbor  facilities,  235-236;  effect  of 
shipbuilding  on  population  of,  253. 

Labor-saving  Devices,  37  et  seq.,  43,  48, 

65  et  seq. 
Lathing:  shell,  37,  49-50;  hydraulic,  at 

Tokyo  Arsenal,  40. 
Launching,  abacus  system  of,  81. 
Lebon,  Captain,  French  artillery  ofificer 

as  instructor,  40. 
Lemoine,  French  caster,  40. 
Lunch  Boxes,  manufacture  of,  67,  69, 

113-114- 

Machinery:  lack  of,  4;  purchase  of,  in 
France,  21;  primitive  state  of,  28; 
purchase  of,  to  manufacture  coast 


and  siege  guns,  41 ;  for  powder  mak- 
ing, 44;  increase  of,  in  arsenals,  47;  in 
Yokosuka  Naval  Arsenal,  143. 

Machine  Guns,  introduction  of,  9; 
Maxim  and  Hotchkiss,  68;  improve- 
ments in,  86. 

Maizuru  Dockyard:  construction  of 
destroyers,  cruisers  and  torpedo 
boats  at,  121,  188;  repairing  at,  138; 
plan  and  structures  of,  147;  number 
of  workmen  at,  148;  engine  making 
at,  150,  railway  facilities  at,  228-229; 
harbor  facilities,  237-238;  eflfect  of 
shipbuilding,  255. 

Manchuria,  89. 

Manila,  mountain  guns  manufactured 
for,  45. 

Manufacturing,  iii;  expenditures  for 
clothing  and  shoe  (1910-1912),  112 
et  seq.;  amount,  rate  of  increase,  ex- 
penses, and  number  of  workmen  in 
provision,  116;  condition  of,  before 
Restoration,  163;  effect  of  military 
industries  on,  182  et  seq. 

Margritte,  Colonel,  French  military 
instructor,  40. 

Masafusa,  Hojo,ii. 

Maxim,  machine  gun,  68. 

Medical  Material  Depot,  object  of,  92. 

Meguro,  11;  enlargement  of  powder 
mill  at,  65;  labor-saving  devices  in 
powder  mill,  66. 

Melbourne  (Australia),  firearms  manu- 
factured for,  45. 

Military  Central  Provision  Depart- 
ment, work  of,  115. 

Military  Clothing  Department,  object 
of,  64. 

Military  Veterinary  School,  99. 

Milling,  of  rice,  195. 

Mining,  influence  of  military  industries 
on,  208  et  seq. 

Mito,  Lord,  16. 

Mitsubishi  Dockyard,  185;  dispatch 
boat  construction  at,  127;  equipment 
of,  187;  torpedo-boat  destroyer  con- 
struction, 188. 

Moji  Arms  Repairing  Works,  67. 

Mukden,  95. 

Muroran:  steel  foundry  at,  171;  harbor 
facilities,  239-240. 

Nagasaki,  13,  18-19,  185;  open  to 
foreigners,  7;  naval  training  school 
at,  18;  warships  built  at,  22,  24-25; 
iron  works,  at  52;  railway  facilities, 
228. 

Nagasaki  Naval  Training  School,  es- 
tablishment of,  18. 

Nagoia,  branch  arsenal  at,  37. 


INDEX 


267 


Naval  factories  and  dockyards:  con- 
struction of,  20;  for  Shimrose  gun 
powder,  75;  men  employed  in,  157; 
wages  of  workmen,  242  et  seq.;  effect 
of,  on  population  of  towns,  252. 

Naval  Stations:  at  Kure,  54  et  seq.;  ex- 
pansion of  Kure,  55,  75  et  seq.;  at 
Sasebo,  55,  75,  81-82;  at  Yokosuka, 
57.  75  ^t  ^^2-.  142  et  seq.;  at  Maizuru 
and  Ominato,  74-75;  at  Takeshiki, 
75;  at  Bako,  75;  engine-making  at, 
150;  men  employed  in,  157;  wages  of 
workmen,  242  et  seq.;  effect  of,  on 
population  of  cities,  252. 

Navy  Department:  establishment  of, 
52-53,  55;  20-year  plan  of,  57;  second 
naval  expansion  plan  of,  57-58;  pro- 
gram for  enlargement  of  navy,  74; 
new  naval  plan,  121-122;  engines 
used  in  naval  industries,  156. 

Nishimura,  5 

Niter,  refining  of,  49  et  seq. 

Nitro-glycerine,  tests  of,  73. 

Normand  Company  (France),  79;  con- 
struction of  torpedo  boat  by,  61. 

Oda,  Lord,  10. 

Oji  Chemical  WorKS,  65;  manufacture 
of  yellow  powder,  71. 

Onohama  Dockyard:  number  of  ships 
built  at,  54  et  seq.;  torpedo-boat 
building  at,  59-60. 

Osaka,  1 1 ;  arsenal  at,  29;  regulations  of 
arsenal  at,  35-36,  39;  activity  of  ar- 
senal during  Satsuma  rebellion,  41; 
use  of  reverberatory  furnace  at 
arsenal  at,  42 ;  manufacture  of  cannon 
at,  42-43;  of  gun  carriage  cannon  and 
mortars  at,  43-44;  of  coast  guns  at, 
44;  of  cartridges  and  shells  at,  46,  49; 
shell-lathing  at,  49-50;  number  of 
shells  manufactured  at,  50;  manu- 
facture of  shrapnel  at,  51 ;  enlarge- 
ment of  arsenal,  64  et  seq.;  manu- 
facture of  tools  at,  70;  of  automobiles 
at,  96;  of  harness  and  other  equip- 
ment, 99;  plan  of  work  and  effect  of 
factories  on  population  of,  25 1 ;  con- 
dition of  work  in  arsenal  at,  1 00-101 ; 
manufacture  of  military  clothing  at, 
109;  shoe  manufacturing  at,  109; 
torpedo  boat  construction  at,  131, 
187;  steel  founding,  183. 

Otomo,  Lord,  10. 

Otsugawa  (Izumi  Province),  institute 
for  gun  examination  at,  36. 

Partray,  French  gun  powder  expert,  47. 
Pattern-making,  at  Osaka  arsenal,  40. 
Peking,  94. 


Pensions,  of  arsenal  employes,  248. 
Percussion  caps,   manufacture  of,   46 

et  seq. 
Perry,  Commodore,  visit  of,  7. 
Perslecken,     Dutch    naval    officer    in 

charge  of  naval  training  school,  18. 
Pickles,  making  of,  115. 
Pontoons,  87,  90;  iron  boats  used  for. 

Population,  effect  of  military  factories 

on,  251  etseq. 
Portugal,  importation  of  guns  from,  10 
Powder:   manufacture  of,   31    et  seq., 

smokeless,  34,  50,  70;  for  small  arms, 

41;   for   rifles,    47;    manufacture   of 

black,  49;  of  yellow,  71.     See  also 

Ammunition 
Powder  mills:   at  Itabashi,  31  et  seq., 

41,  47,  51,  65,  70;  at  Iwabana,  49; 

at  Meguro,  51,  65;  at  Uji,  66-67. 
Protection,  of  military  industries,  170- 

171,217-218. 
Provision    Department,    creation    and 

object  of,  64,  194-195. 

Quaratezy,  Major  Alexandro,  Italian 
instructor,  44. 

Railways:  in  arsenals,  37;  battalions, 
94-95;  development  of,  224  et  seq. 

Ram  heads,  disadvantages  of,  124. 

Range  finders:  manufacture  of,  34,  45; 
study  of  foreign  manufacture  of,  68. 

Repairing:  of  warships,  137-138;  cost 
of  warship,  138  et  seq;  yards,  138. 

Restoration  (Meiji):  causes  of,  27-28; 
manufacturing  before,  163. 

Revenue,  from  operation  of  arsenals, 
102. 

Revolvers:  26th-year  model,  manu- 
factured in  Tokyo  Arsenal,  45;  Smith 
and  Wesson,  50.     See  also  Arms. 

Rice,  cleaning  of,  195. 

Rifles.     See  Arms. 

Rintaro,  Katsu,  18,  20-21. 

Riots,  at  Yamaguchi  and  Kumamoto, 

41,  47- 

Roches,  Leon,  French  ambassador,  20. 

Russia:  visit  of  warships  of,  12-13; 
building  of  battleship  for,  17. 

Russo-Japanese  War,  91,  155,  164,  171; 
development  of  war  implements  dur- 
ing, 64;  importance  of,  85;  effect  on 
industry,  170,  183,  187,  191;  increase 
of  imports  during,  217;  effect  on  rail- 
way development,  226. 

Saga,  shipbuilding  at,  25. 
Samukaze-Zawa  (Oshu  Province),  ship- 
building at,  25. 


268 


INDEX* 


Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal:  construction  of 
destroyers,  cruisers,  and  torpedo 
boats  at,  121,  127  et  seq.,  188;  repair- 
ing at,  138;  plan  and  structures  of, 
145;  number  of  workmen  at,  147; 
engine  making  at,  150;  railway  con- 
nections, 227-228;  harbor  facilities, 
236-237 ;  effect  of  shipbuilding  on  pop- 
ulation of,  254. 

Satsuma  Rebellion,  32,  36,  48,  169;  out- 
break of,  41,  56,  168;  effect  on  arms 
manufacture,  41,  47,  217. 

Schichan  Company  (Germany),  79,  82; 
manufacture  of  torpedo  boats  by,  61. 

Schools,  military  and  naval  technical, 
172,  174.  et  seg.;  night,  173. 

Senju  (Tokyo) :  woolen  cloth  factory  at, 
29,  103,  193  et  seq.;  manufactures  of 
woolen  factory  at,  107;  expenditures 
and  receipts  of  woolen  cloth  factory 
at,  108;  value  of  products  of  factory 
at,  108. 

Seoul,  95. 

Sheep,  raising  of,  105. 

Shells:  manufacture  of  (1830-1843),  15; 
at  Osaka  Arsenal,  46  et  seq.;  at  Tokyo 
Arsenal,  47;  progress  in  manufacture 
of,  50;  use  of  electricity  for  casting  of, 
67;  machine  for  making,  for  quick- 
firing  field  and  mountain  artillery 
guns,  67;  manufacture  of  shrapnel,  72. 

Shimoda,  17;  shipbuilding  at,  22,  24. 

Shingu,  shipbuilding  at,  25. 

Shipbuilding:  early,  16  et  seq.,  22  et  seq.; 
at  time  of  Restoration,  52;  develop- 
ment of,  22  et  seq.,  53  et  seq.,  122,  124, 
185' et  seq.;  private  ownership  in, 
186;  effect  of,  on  population  of  towns, 
252  et  seq. 

Shipping,  development  of,  due  to  mili- 
tary and  naval  industries,  230  et  seq. 

Ships.     See  Warships. 

Ships,  repairs  to.     See  Repairing. 

Shoes,  factory  for  manufacture  of 
military,  109,  174. 

Shonai,  shipbuilding  at,  25. 

Shrapnel,  manufacture  of,  51,  73. 

Sick  relief,  in  military  factories,  247 
et  seq. 

Sinminting,  95. 

Sino-Japanese  War,  38, 98, 164, 169-170; 
advance  in  military  industry  previ- 
ous to,  29,  51 ;  use  of  warships  during, 
58-59;  expansion  of  army  and  navy 
after,  63,  186;  enlargement  of  arse- 
nals after,  64  et  seq.;  increased  de- 
mand for  ammunition  during,  71; 
government  manufacture  of  provi- 
sions after,  115;  increase  of  exports 
during,  217. 


Slaughter  houses,  establishment  of,  115. 

Snaidel  Canay  Company  (France), 
automobiles  purchased  from,  96. 

Soy  Extract,  making  of,  115,  204. 

Spain,  5;  importation  of  guns  from,  10. 

Steam  hammers,  introduction  of,  68. 

Steamers,  domestic  construction  of,  23. 

Steam  power,  use  of,  in  arsenals,  40. 

Steamship  lines,  230  et  seq. 

Steel :  manufacture  of,  in  Osaka  Arsenal 
70;  of  nickel-chrome,  73;  Japan  Steel 
Foundry,  171,  183;  inventions  in 
manufacture  of ,  177. 

Submarine  boats,  83;  domestic  con- 
struction of,  136-137. 

Subsidies,  to  war  material  producers, 
166. 

Takinogawa,  powder  mill  at,  32. 

Tanegashima,  5-6. 

Tarozaemon,  Egawa,  shell  manufac- 
turer, 9,  15. 

Telegraph:  introduction  of,  88;  corps, 
88;  improvements  in,  89;  lines  con- 
structed during  Russo-Japanese  War, 
90;  wireless,  90. 

Telephone:  in  arsenals,  65,  67;  wireless, 
90. 

Tents,  portable,  1 14. 

Thornycraft  Company  (England), auto- 
mobiles imported  from,  96. 

Tokitaka,  5. 

Tokuyama,  harbor  facilities,  238. 

Tokyo:  arsenal  at,  29;  work  of  arsenal, 
30-31,  39  et  seq.,  labor  saving  devices 
in  arsenal  at,  40-41 ;  increase  of  work- 
men in  arsenal  at,  41;  in  1894,  68; 
rifles  manufactured  in  arsenal,  43-44; 
harness  manufacture  at,  44,  99;  shell 
manufacture  at,  47;  ammunition 
manufacture  at,  50;  enlargement  of 
arsenal  at,  64-65;  naval  arsenal  at,  75; 
Central  Medical  Material  Depot  in, 
92;  manufacture  of  automobiles  at, 
96;  plan  of  work  and  condition  of 
arsenal  at,  loo-ioi;  military  Central 
Provision  Department  at,  115;  woolen 
cloth  manufacture  at,  193;  influence 
of  military  factories  on  population  of, 

251. 

Tomonotsu,  shipbuildmg  at,  26. 

Tools,  manufacture  of  edge,  70. 

Torpedo  boats:  introduction  of,  59 
et  seq.;  particulars  of  construction  of, 
60;  building  of  (1892- 1894),  62;  pro- 
gram for  building  after  Sino-Japanese 
War,  74,  79  et  seq.;  cost  of  construc- 
tion, 81 ;  built  during  Russo-Japanese 
War,  135  et  seq. 

Training  ships,  built  (1883-1888),  57. 


INDEX 


269 


Tsu,  shipbuilding  at,  25. 
Tsukiji:  military  school  at,  19;  Arms 
Bureau  at,  53. 

Uji,  powder  mill  at,  66. 

Ujina,    branch    of    Military    Central 

Provision  Department  at,  115. 
Unions,  industrial,  171. 
United  States,  19-20;  warships  built  by, 

22. 
Uraga,  15;  shipbuilding  at,  16,  22,  24; 

dockyard  at,  52-53,  132,  185,  187. 

Wages:  in  arsenals,  102,  242  et  seq.;  in 
army  and  navy  factories,  212;  242 
et  seq. 

Wakamatsu,  harbor  facilities,  238. 

Wakayama,  branch  factory,  35-36. 

Warships:  need  of,  3;  purchase  of, 
abroad,  8;  visits  of  foreign,  12,"  15; 
growing  interest  in,  16;  building  of 
domestic,  22.  121  et  seq.;  size  and 
cost  of  navy  (1868),  22-23;  improve- 
ment in  construction  of,  27-28,  74, 
187;  constructed  (1872),  55-56;  (1883 
1885),  57;  (1876-1894),  62;  used  dur- 
ing Sino- Japanese  War,  58;  increased 
demand  for,  63;  details  of  construc- 
tion of  (from  Russo-Japanese  War 
to  present  time),  134-135;  details  of 
engines  for,  1 51-152;  use  of  bri- 
quettes, 155. 

Warship  Training  School,  foundation 
of,  19. 

Water  bottle,  manufacture  of,  113-114. 

Water  supply,  65. 

Wireless  telegraph,  177. 

Women:  employment  of,  in  arsenals, 
32,  68;  in  factories,   11 1;  wages  of, 

243- 
Workmen:  increase  of,  in  arsenals,  41; 


mutual  relief  of,  66,  243;  numbers  of; 
in  arsenals,  66;  in  1912,  102,  212, 
wages  of,  in  arsenals,  102,  212,  242 
et  seq.;  numbers  of,  in  woolen  fac- 
tories, 106,  III;  in  shoemaking  fac- 
tories, 1 1 1 ;  in  military  factories,  120, 
212;  number  of,  in  Yokosuka  Naval 
Arsenal,  143;  number  of,  in  Kure 
Naval  Arsenal,  145;  number  of,  at 
Sasebo  Naval  Arsenal,  147;  number 
of,  at  Maizuru  Naval  Arsenal,  148; 
employed  in  naval  factories,  157; 
training  of,  173  et  seq.;  in  Hachiman- 
mure  iron  foundry,  192;  Workmen's 
Mutual  Relief  Association,  243. 

Workmen's  Mutual  Relief  Association, 
work  of,  243,  249  et  seq. 

Workshops,  20-2 1 . 

Yamaguchi,  rioting  at,  41. 

Yarrow  Company  (England),  59,  78. 

Yedo:  shipbuilding  at,  16;  military 
school  at,  19. 

Yokohama:  naval  workshop  at,  20; 
iron  works  at,  21,  185;  factory  at,  52 
et  seq. 

Yokosuka:  naval  dockyard  at,  20,  185; 
naval  arsenal,  52-53;  75;  shipbuilding 
at,  56  et  seq.,  76  et  seq.,  121  et  seq.; 
torpedo-boat  construction  at,  80-81; 
plans  and  structures  of  naval  arsenal 
at,  142  et  seq.;  number  of  workmen 
at,  143;  engine  making  at,  150;  rail- 
way facilities  at,  224-225;  improve- 
ment of  harbor  facilities,  233  et  seq.; 
effect  of  shipbuilding  on  population 
of,  252. 

Zinc  plate:  importation  of,  47,  220;  in- 
ventions in  manufacture  of,  177; 
importance  of,  210. 


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